Literature of Egypt and "The Book of the Dead"

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INTRODUCTION

Egyptian Literature, literature of ancient Egypt, recorded in inscriptions or written on papyrus. Ancient Egyptian literature is characterized by a wide diversity of types and subject matter. It dates from the Old Kingdom (about 2575-2134 bc) into the Greco-Roman period (after 332 bc), and the works employ such literary devices as simile, metaphor, alliteration, and punning. For information on later Egyptian literature, see Arabic Literature.

RANGE OF LITERARY FORMS

The religious literature of ancient Egypt includes hymns to the gods, mythological and magical texts, and an extensive collection of mortuary texts. The range of secular literature includes stories; instructive literature, known as “wisdom texts”; poems; love songs; biographical and historical texts; and scientific treatises, including mathematical and medical texts. Although they are not strictly considered literature, the many legal, administrative, and economic texts and private documents such as letters are also notable. The individual authors of several compositions dating from the Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 bc) were revered in later periods. They came from the educated class of priests and upper-level government officials, and their audience was largely educated people like themselves. Many literary compositions of the Middle Kingdom were composed as political propaganda, to teach students, who learned to read and write by copying them on tablets and ostraca (fragments of broken pottery), to be loyal to the ruling dynasty. Many of these same wisdom texts were still copied by schoolchildren of the New Kingdom (1550-1070 bc) more than 500 years later, along with more contemporary texts designed to undermine the glamour of the new military profession. Some of the stories include elements of mythology (see Egyptian Mythology) and may owe much to an oral storytelling tradition.

OLD KINGDOM

The oldest literature preserved, the Pyramid Texts, are mortuary texts carved inside the pyramids of kings and queens of the later part of the Old Kingdom. They were designed to ensure the dead ruler's rightful place in the afterlife. These texts incorporate mythology, magical spells, hymns to the gods, and daily offering rituals. Many autobiographical inscriptions from private tombs recount the deceased's participation in historical events. Although no stories or wisdom texts are preserved from the Old Kingdom, some Middle Kingdom manuscripts may be copies of Old Kingdom originals—an example, “The Instruction of the Vizier Ptahhotep,” which is composed of maxims that illustrate basic virtues (such as moderation, truthfulness, and kindness) governing human relations and that describe the ideal person as a just administrator.

FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

Following the decline of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts were appropriated by private individuals. Supplemented with new incantations, these texts were painted on coffins, from which the name Coffin Texts is derived. Private individuals also continued to have their tombs inscribed with autobiographical texts, which often recounted their exploits during this time of political unrest. To this First Intermediate period (about 2134-2040 bc) are attributed various laments over the chaotic state of affairs. One of these, “The Dialogue of a Man with his Ba” (soul), is a debate on suicide; another, the earliest example of the songs sung by harpists at funerary banquets, advises “Eat, drink, and be merry, before it's too late!”

MIDDLE KINGDOM

In addition to Coffin Texts, Middle Kingdom religious literature comprises numerous hymns to the king and various deities—including a long hymn to the Nile River—and ritual texts. Private autobiographies containing historical information continued to be inscribed, and rulers began setting up stelae (stone slabs) on which their important deeds were recorded. From both the First Intermediate period and the Middle Kingdom come instructional texts, each written in the name of a reigning king telling his son and successor how various specific historic events influenced the kingship and how the son should profit by the father's mistakes. “The Satire on Trades” stresses the bad aspects of all possible occupations in contrast to the easy life of the scribe. The stories composed during the Middle Kingdom include “The Story of Sinuhe,” the story of a palace official who flees to Syria at the death of King Amenemhet I and becomes a rich and important man there; “The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant,” about a man who makes such eloquent pleas for the return of his stolen donkeys that he is kept in protective custody for some time so that the official in charge can record his orations for the king's enjoyment; “The Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor,” which recounts a fabulous encounter with a giant snake on a lush island; and “The Story of King Khufu and the Magicians.” The earliest preserved medical and mathematical papyri also date from this period.

Abū Simbel, 1250 BC

New Kingdom mortuary texts, especially one called the Book of the Dead, were written on papyrus for inclusion in tombs. The most famous hymns from the period include those from the reign of Akhenaton that were dedicated to the sun god as sole deity. King Kamose, at the end of the Second Intermediate period (1640-1550 bc), recorded the early stages of driving the Hyksos out of Egypt in the mid-1500s bc. After the early New Kingdom, the number of such royal historical inscriptions increased greatly, while private autobiographical texts gave way to religious texts. Thutmose III recorded his various wars in Syria both on a freestanding stela (called the Poetical Stela) and on the walls of the temple at Al Karnak. Both records describe how the king calls in his advisers and apprises them of the difficulty of their situation. When he is advised to try the easy solution, he tells them that he is not afraid and will dare the more dangerous route, and he succeeds. Late New Kingdom rulers, especially Ramses II and Ramses III, also left extensive records of their military exploits. Both poetic accounts and chronicles of the deeds of Ramses II at the Battle of Kadesh against the Hittites have been preserved. The instructive texts, now directed at lower ranks in the bureaucracy, were no longer based on the assumption that correct thinking and just action automatically lead to wordly success. Instead, they counsel contemplation and endurance. The many stories that involve mythological characters include “The Contendings of Horus and Seth”; “The Destruction of Mankind,” in which human beings are spared from annihilation by having the goddess Hathor drink blood-colored beer; and “The Tale of the Two Brothers,” a story of a good younger brother betrayed by his suspicious elder brother. “The Report of Wenamun” recounts the tribulations of an envoy sent to purchase wood in Byblos. Several collections of love poems exist from this period as well.

LATE PERIOD

From the subsequent centuries into the Greco-Roman period (after 332 bc), examples from the full range of Egyptian literary forms are known. These include new religious compositions, private and royal historical records, instructions, stories, and scientific treatises such as medical, mathematical, and astronomical papyri. “The Instructions of Onchsheshongy,” a collection of largely pragmatic maxims, many of which sound like proverbs, and “The Instructions of Papyrus Insinger,” which portrays the wise person as being moral and pious, contrast sharply with the earlier expressions of belief in rewards in life on earth. Stories were written in this period about the adventures of various magicians, as was a cycle recounting the exploits of a legendary king, Petubastis. One mythological tale consists of a series of animal fables. Contacts with contemporary Greek literature are evident both in the epic cycle and the fables, in Egyptian texts (including prophetic literature) translated into Greek, and in a range of magical texts known in both Greek and Egyptian.

“The Book of the Dead”

Book of the Dead, name generally given to a large collection of funerary texts of various dates, containing magical formulas, hymns, and prayers believed by the ancient Egyptians to guide and protect the soul (Ka) in its journey into the region of the dead (Amenti). Egyptians believed that the knowledge of these texts enabled the soul to ward off demons attempting to impede its progress, and to pass the tests set by the 42 judges in the hall of Osiris, god of the underworld. These texts also indicated that happiness in the afterlife was dependent on the deceased's having led a virtuous life on earth. The earliest religious (funerary) texts known were found cut in hieroglyphs on the walls inside the pyramids of the kings of the 5th and 6th Dynasties of the Old Kingdom; these became known as the Pyramid Texts. A famous example is found in the pyramid of Unas (reigned about 2356-2323 bc), the last king of the 5th Dynasty. In the first Intermediate Period and in the Middle Kingdom private individuals had these texts painted on coffins, from which the alternate name Coffin Texts is derived. By the 18th Dynasty the texts were inscribed on papyri placed in the  mummy case; these papyri were frequently from 15 to 30 m (50 to 100 ft) long and illustrated in color.

This vast collection of mortuary texts has survived in three critical revisions, or recensions: the Heliopolitan Recension, edited by the priests of the College of Anu (Heliopolis), and containing texts in use between the 5th and the 12th Dynasties; the Theban Recension, used from the 18th to the 22nd Dynasties; and the Saite Recension, used from the 26th Dynasty, about 600 bc probably to the end of the Ptolemies, 31 bc. The title “Book of the Dead” is misleading; the texts do not form a single connected work and do not belong to one period. Egyptologists have usually given this title to the last two Recensions. Translations of some sections (chapters) were made under various titles; one celebrated English translation of the Book of the Dead was made by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge in 1895.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Literature of China and the Warning States Period

Chinese Literature, writings of the Chinese people, with a continuous history of more than 3,000 years. It is the literature of a large multicultural area that became an empire in the 3rd century bc. This empire lasted until 1911, when the Republic of China was formed. Most of the literature prior to the 20th century was written or collected by officials who were part of the imperial system or by men educated as a part of this system. Chinese literature therefore has many connections with the history of China and with the major philosophical and religious beliefs of the society.

Poetry and essays were the major forms of Chinese literature prior to the 20th century. Yet over the centuries the Chinese also developed traditions of fiction and drama. While Chinese literature has adopted many literary forms from its wide contact with other cultures, all forms of Chinese literature, in turn, have had a major influence on the writings of Korea, Japan, and neighboring countries of Central and Southeast Asia.


The Warning States Period

The period of the Warring States begins in 403 bc, at the decline of the Zhou dynasty. During this time the Chinese empire shrinks and warlords struggle to forge new regional governments, especially in north China. The period is marked by the spread of cities and a shift toward more direct and centralized rule in the areas still controlled by the Zhou. Changes in the government and the economy make the clan less important, and the three-generation family becomes the primary unit of Chinese society. The bureaucracy grows and gains greater control over the peasantry, who must pay taxes directly to the government. Law codes and theories of governance develop to levels of great sophistication and exercise a strong influence on later governments.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Philosophers of China:

I. Confucius

INTRODUCTION

Confucius (551 or 552-479 bc), Chinese philosopher and educator, one of the most important individuals in Chinese history, and one of the most influential figures in world history. His name in Chinese is Kongzi (also spelled K’ung-tzu).

Confucius Life

Much about the life of Confucius is uncertain. He was born in the state of Lu, in what is now Shandong (Shantung) province, during the second half of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty (1045?-256 bc). China was then divided into a number of states. Although these states were under the authority of a single Zhou king, they functioned quite independently and often engaged in disastrous wars.

Confucius’s father apparently died when Confucius was young. His death left the family in poverty, so that Confucius had to work at menial tasks as a youth to help support the family. Somehow, he managed to obtain an education. As an adult he impressed others with his learning and good character, so that he began to acquire students and disciples. Confucius’s experiences growing up may have contributed to his willingness to instruct any student, regardless of wealth or social class, and to judge others on their actual character, rather than on their social standing.

Confucius was eventually appointed magistrate of justice in Lu. He resigned, apparently in protest over government corruption. After his resignation Confucius spent the next few years traveling through various states in China, hoping to find a ruler who would put his philosophy into practice. During his travels he came close to starvation at one point and was almost murdered on another occasion. Failing to find the ruler he was looking for, Confucius returned to Lu. He was given only a minor position in government, but several of his disciples attained high office in Lu and elsewhere.

After his death Confucius’s disciples collected his sayings in a work now known as the Lunyu (Lun-yü, Analects), a book in 20 sections. Scholars generally agree that the last 5 sections were composed long after the time of Confucius’s immediate disciples. There is intense disagreement over how much of the first 15 sections can reliably be attributed to Confucius or his students.

Confucius's Teachings

Confucius shared a belief, common in his time, that China had in the past enjoyed almost utopian periods of peace and prosperity under the rule of “sage kings.” Confucius held that these wise kings possessed de (te), meaning “virtue” or a sort of charisma that comes from being a good person and that makes others want to follow one. Consequently, the sage kings were able to govern primarily through the power of setting a good ethical example, rather than through military force or criminal penalties.

According to Confucius a good person has ren (or jen), translated as “humaneness” or “benevolence,” which is the summation of all other virtues. For example, a person with ren will always do what is appropriate for his social role. This yi (i, or “righteousness”) involves being obedient to one’s ruler and one’s parents. Obedience is not blind, however. Confucius stresses that we must encourage our superiors to act ethically and resign our position if the ruler persists in unethical behavior. A ren person does what is right regardless of the danger to himself or herself and regardless of the hardship this requires. This person also is faithful in his words: honest, but not glib. Finally, all virtues have to be applied in a flexible manner that shows an appreciation of specific circumstances and the people in them.

Confucius discouraged his students from worrying about the afterlife. Instead, he encouraged them to live in harmony and to help other people through government service, teaching, or just being a good family member. Confucius thought that there was great joy to be found in everyday family life, participating in communal activities, enjoying music, and spending time with one’s friends.

Confucius stressed three institutions that both express and help cultivate the virtues: rituals, education, and the family. Rituals can include everything from funeral ceremonies to sacrifices to the spirits of ancestors to the proper way to dress, eat dinner, or treat a guest. Confucius believed that performing rituals with a spirit of reverence was not only a sign of virtue, but could also help cultivate the virtues in oneself. He thought that there was only one correct set of rituals: those handed down by the sage kings of the past. Failing to perform the correct rituals, or performing them without proper reverence, was both a cause and a symptom of bad character and social decay.

In educating his disciples Confucius stressed the Shijing (Shih ching, “Book of Songs”), an anthology of poems from a variety of sources that was already old and revered by his era. He encouraged his disciples to find metaphorical meanings with ethical significance in the poems. For example, a poem that describes a team of horses as “never deviating” from their path should be read as a metaphor for following the way of the sage kings. Confucius was a demanding teacher who expected his students to think carefully about what he taught them and to apply it in their own lives.

Confucius’s commitment to the family is revealed in a famous anecdote in which a ruler brags to Confucius about how someone in his state is so upright that he had turned in his own father for being a thief. Confucius suggests that he prefers the standard in his own state, where fathers and sons protect each other. One of the reasons that the family is so important, according to Confucius, is that we first learn to love and respect others in our family. This respect becomes the basis of virtue in later life.

 Confucian Tradition

Confucius described himself as a “transmitter and not an innovator,” because he believed that all his teachings were nothing more than the way of the ancient sages. However, he was more original than he realized, and he started one of the great intellectual traditions. This tradition is known in China as the rujia (ju-chia, or “School of the Scholars”) but is called Confucianism in the West. Confucians all try to follow the Way of Confucius as they understand it, but they often disagree sharply over what this way is. For example, Confucius said almost nothing about human nature, but his later followers debated whether human nature was good, as Mencius argued in the 4th century bc, or bad, as Xunzi (Hsün-tzu) claimed in the 3rd century bc.

Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi), a philosopher who lived in the 12th century ad, influenced thinking on Confucius for centuries. His views were adopted by the government and became the official state orthodoxy. Zhu Xi identified the Sishu (Four Books) as the core of Confucian philosophy. They comprised the Analects, the Mencius (Book of Mencius) by a follower of Confucius, the Greater Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean. The latter two presumably contain Confucius’s philosophical utterances, systematically arranged and with commentaries by his disciples. Zhu Xi’s commentaries on these works interpreted them in the light of one another and in terms of a philosophical system that was influenced by Zen Buddhism. This interpretation continues to influence how many people understand Confucius even today.

During China’s Cultural Revolution, from 1966 to 1976, Confucius was condemned by the Communist government as an element of China’s “feudal” past. However, economic and social changes in China since the 1980s have led to renewed interest in and respect for Confucius and Confucianism.

From a modern perspective, Confucius’s worldview has certain limitations. He was ignorant of cultural diversity; he accepted the sexism of his society; he shows no interest in natural science or technology; his political philosophy is undemocratic; and he gives insufficient stress to social change. However, Confucius will no doubt continue to inspire people across the world with his vision of social harmony, his insight into human virtue, and his techniques for cultivating ethical individuals.

II. Lao Tze 

Very little is known about Lao Tze. So little that even his surname is clouded in uncertainties. However, it is generally accepted that his name was Li Er (李耳) or Lao Tan (老聃), and was born in the state of Chu (楚國) during the Zhou dynasty (周朝), but the date of his birth is another mystery. Another accepted fact is that he was a keeper of archive (守藏室之史) in the Zhou court. It was while working in this capacity that Confucius (孔子) came and consulted him on matters of ceremonies and rites. Based upon this encounter it is assumed that he was older than Confucius.

It is unclear when he left this post. Legend has it that after leaving he decided to travel westward riding an oxen. At this time a purple cloud started to hover over him. Thus this journey is generally referred to as the Purple Cloud from the East (紫氣東來). One day he came to China’s westmost outpost (函谷關). The guardian of this outpost had heard of Lao Tze, his learning and his westward journey. He specially ordered his underlings to keep their eyes open for Lao Tze and when spotted should reported to him immediately. Upon meeting Lao Tze, he accorded Lao Tze the respects of a student to a teacher and asked Lao Tze to leave some of his wisdom in the form of writing behind. At this point Lao Tze wrote a 5,000 word essay titled Tao Te Ching (道德經). After he finished the essay, Lao Tze continued his westward journey and not to be heard from again.
Here is a brief listing of some of the ideas and concepts in the Tao Te Ching:

• Tao (道) is the invisible, intangible, and indescribable force which created the universe.
• Ideas and matters exist in pairs and are relative in that the pairs are always opposite yet depending on the other for its own existence. An example is good and evil. We know good when we encounter it only because we have known or encountered evil.
• Strength of the weak or soft is greater than the forceful or hard because the hard will break while the soft will bend and rebound.
• Advocated a return to the simple life of bygone days when people were self-sufficient and uneducated.
• For government he advocated sparsely populated small states where people have very little contact with each other.
• Most important of all is the concept which can loosely translated as let it be (無為).

The philosophy as outlined in Tao Te Ching (道德經) became popular during the early part of the Han Dynasty (漢朝). It is credited with calming the country and settling the population after the turmoil of the Warring States (戰國), the harsh Qin Dynasty (秦朝) and the ensuing civil war (楚漢相爭). From this base Wu Emperor (漢武帝) was able to launch his successful campaigns of driving the Northern nomads, Xiongnus (匈奴), far into the desert.
Hundreds of years later, the Taoists (道教) while battling Buddhism (佛教) for followers adapted Tao Te Ching as their religion’s dogma. In turn they honoured Lao Tze as the founder of their religion. However, honours didn’t really started to pour in until the Tang Dynasty (唐朝).
Keep in mind that since the latter part of the Han Dynasty, bloodline and ranked clans (門第望族) were of utmost important. At one point clan membership was the only requirement for high ranking positions in government (上品無寒門，下品無望族). Capability and learning played no part whatsoever. Yes, this is a caste system. Its meridian was during the North-south period (南北朝). The two most powerful clans were Wang (王) and Xie (謝). Stories had it that during the early Tang dynasty the emperor had trouble finding a spouse for one his daughters as the royal family was ranked six on list of desired matches. <> Then it is understandable for the royal family of the Tang Dynasty who was very conscientious of its somewhat mixed bloodline to seek direct linkage to a historical Han figure. That figure happened to be Lao Tze. Taoism in turn became the national religion during the Tang Dynasty.
It all started in May 620AD (武德三年) when Ji Shan (吉善) of Jinzhou (晉州) walking along Sheep Horn Mountain (羊角山) met a very dignify-looking old gentleman on a white horse with red mane.
The elderly man said, “Go and inform the Tang Emperor that I am his ancestor. At the end of the year there will be peace and his descendants will be on the throne for a thousand years.”
Lee Yun was amazed by this and decided to build a temple where the alleged meeting took place. This was the first step in solidifying the link between the Tang Emperor and Lao Tze. Later a royal edict officially ranked Taoism ahead of all religions.

III. Hsun Tsu

Xunzi or Hsün-tzu (300?-235? bc), major figure in Chinese philosophy, considered with Confucius and Mencius as one of the great founders of Confucianism. Xunzi was born in the state of Zhao in present-day Shanxi province. He was a member of the famed philosophers' circle, the Chi-hsia group, in the state of Qi until slander forced him to move to the state of Chu, where he became a magistrate in 255 BC.

Xunzi was the first Confucian to produce a book instead of leaving sayings for later compilation. This book of 32 essays, known today as the Xunzi, brought a new intellectual rigor to Confucian debate. Directly contradicting Mencius, Xunzi declared that human nature is fundamentally bad and likely to create chaos unless restrained and modified by li, the patterns of ritual and custom that evolve from the rational faculty of humans. Culture thus holds society together and protects people from their own natures. The most cultivated individuals—the Confucian sages with their highly developed rational faculties—were therefore best adapted to govern, rather than hereditary rulers. The li of society includes a natural hierarchy assigning each member a place and duties.

Though a gifted controversialist, Xunzi deplored argument and advocated a sage-king to restore the pristine li and impose consensus. This authoritarian tendency brought him close to the school of Chinese philosophy called Legalism espoused by his two pupils, Han Fei and Li Si. Neo-Confucians of the 12th century ad rejected Xunzi and declared Mencius the second sage of Confucianism. Despite this criticism, Xunzi was instrumental in systematizing and perpetuating the thought of his predecessors.

IV. Han Fei Zi

Han Fei (280?-233? bc), also known as Han Fei-tzu (tzu is a Chinese suffix meaning “master”), early Chinese philosopher, considered the greatest exponent of the political theory of Legalism (see Chinese Philosophy: Legalism). Born into the aristocracy of the small kingdom of Han in central China, Han Fei grew up towards the end of the Period of the Warring States (403-221 bc), when all the states of Zhou-dynasty China (1045?-256 bc) were engaged in a struggle for political power. He studied under the Confucian philosopher Xunzi (see Confucianism), but turned away from established traditions to teach what he felt were more practical matters. He wrote down his views in essays that were later compiled in the book Han Feizi (Han Fei-tzu).

In his book, Han Fei diverged from the dominant philosophy of Confucianism by opposing traditional models of government and excessive book learning. He advocated a state, ruled by an enlightened ruler with absolute authority, in which law replaces morality. According to Han Fei, individual standards of morality (see Ethics) should be replaced by what the ruler wants (considered right) and what the ruler does not want (considered wrong).

Later, the leader of Han sent Han Fei to negotiate with the western state of Qin (Ch’in), where he was politely received by its ruler, the future First Emperor Shi Huangdi, who had read his book. However, Qin's chief minister Li Si, an occasional pupil of Han Fei, persuaded Shi Huangdi to have Han Fei executed by forcing him to drink poison. Following the principles of Han Fei's philosophy, Qin went on to dominate all other Chinese states and unify China, but the Qin dynasty's swift collapse in 209 bc effectively discredited the views of Legalism.

V. Sun Tzu - Art of War

The Art of War is an ancient Chinese military treatise that is attributed to Sun Tzu (also referred to as "Sunzi" and "Sun Wu"), a high ranking military general and strategist during the late Spring and Autumn period (some scholars believe that the Art of War was not completed until the subsequent Warring States period^[1]). Composed of 13 chapters, each of which is devoted to one aspect of warfare, it is said to be the definitive work on military strategies and tactics of its time, and is still read for its military insights.

The Art of War is one of the oldest and most successful books on military strategy in the world. It has been the most famous and influential of China's Seven Military Classics: "for the last two thousand years it remained the most important military treatise in Asia, where even the common people knew it by name."^[2] It has had an influence on Eastern military thinking, business tactics, and beyond.

Sun Tzu emphasized the importance of positioning in military strategy, and that the decision to position an army must be based on both objective conditions in the physical environment and the subjective beliefs of other, competitive actors in that environment. He thought that strategy was not planning in the sense of working through an established list, but rather that it requires quick and appropriate responses to changing conditions. Planning works in a controlled environment, but in a changing environment, competing plans collide, creating unexpected situations.

The book was first translated into the French language in 1772 by French Jesuit Jean Joseph Marie Amiot, and into English by British officer Everard Ferguson Calthrop in 1905. Leaders as diverse as Mao Zedong, General Vo Nguyen Giap, Baron Antoine-Henri Jomini, GeneralDouglas MacArthur, Napoleon, and leaders of Imperial Japan have drawn inspiration from the work. The Art of War has also been applied tobusiness and managerial strategies.

Imperial Japan have drawn inspiration from the work. The Art of War has also been applied tobusiness and managerial strategies. 

 The 13 Chapters

1. Laying Plans/The Calculations explores the five fundamental factors (the Way, seasons, terrain, leadership, and management) and seven elements that determine the outcomes of military engagements. By thinking, assessing and comparing these points, a commander can calculate his chances of victory. Habitual deviation from these calculations will ensure failure via improper action. The text stresses that war is a very grave matter for the state, and must not be commenced without due consideration.
2. Waging War/The Challenge explains how to understand the economy of warfare, and how success requires winning decisive engagements quickly. This section advises that successful military campaigns require limiting the cost of competition and conflict.
3. Attack by Stratagem/The Plan of Attack defines the source of strength as unity, not size, and discusses the five factors that are needed to succeed in any war. In order of importance, these critical factors are: Attack, Strategy, Alliances, Army, and Cities.
4. Tactical Dispositions/Positioning explains the importance of defending existing positions until a commander is capable of advancing from those positions in safety. It teaches commanders the importance of recognizing strategic opportunities, and teaches not to create opportunities for the enemy.
5. Energy/Directing explains the use of creativity and timing in building an army's momentum.
6. Weak Points & Strong/Illusion and Reality explains how an army's opportunities come from the openings in the environment caused by the relative weakness of the enemy in a given area.
7. Maneuvering/Engaging The Force explains the dangers of direct conflict and how to win those confrontations when they are forced upon the commander.
8. Variation in Tactics/The Nine Variations focuses on the need for flexibility in an army's responses. It explains how to respond to shifting circumstances successfully.
9. The Army on the March/Moving The Force describes the different situations in which an army finds itself as it moves through new enemy territories, and how to respond to these situations. Much of this section focuses on evaluating the intentions of others.
10. Terrain/Situational Positioning looks at the three general areas of resistance (distance, dangers, and barriers) and the six types of ground positions that arise from them. Each of these six field positions offer certain advantages and disadvantages.
11. The Nine Situations/Nine Terrains describes the nine common situations (or stages) in a campaign, from scattering to deadly, and the specific focus that a commander will need in order to successfully navigate them.
12. The Attack by Fire/Fiery Attack explains the general use of weapons and the specific use of the environment as a weapon. This section examines the five targets for attack, the five types of environmental attack, and the appropriate responses to such attacks.
13. The Use of Spies/The Use of Intelligence focuses on the importance of developing good information sources, and specifies the five types of intelligence sources and how to best manage each of them.

Literature of Japan and The Age of the Samurai

Literature of Japan

Japanese Literature, literature of Japan, in written form from at least the 8th century ad to the present. Japanese literature is one of the oldest and richest national literatures. Since the late 1800s, Japanese writings have become increasingly familiar abroad. Genres such as haiku verse, nō drama, and the Japanese novel have had a substantial impact on literature in many parts of the world.

The literary history of Japan, like the history of the country itself, has been marked by alternating periods of isolation from the outside world and engagement with it. During times of greater contact with foreign societies, Japanese literature absorbed new approaches, genres, and concepts.

Another consistent factor in Japanese literature over the centuries has been a tension between the generally traditionalist values of the elite members of society and the innovative impulses that have come from the culture of common people. Both camps influenced each other, and both contributed greatly to Japanese literary history.

Other distinctive qualities of Japanese literature include sensitivity to the place of nature in human life, an emphasis on sincerity of expression, and the uncommon prominence of female writers, as compared with the literary histories of most cultures.

Scholars customarily divide the general history of Japan into periods based on shifts in the location of the national capital and changes in governmental institutions, such as the Heian period (794-1185), the Muromachi period (1333-1603), and the Tokugawa period (1603-1868). The literary history of Japan can be broken down according to these same periods. The major dividing line between the traditional and modern periods of the country is conventionally set at the Meiji Restoration of 1868, which also signaled a new era of modernization and contact with the West.

The Age of the Samurai

Introduction

Edo Period or Tokugawa Period, period of Japanese history that lasted from 1603 to 1867, when the Tokugawa dynasty of shoguns (military dictators) ruled Japan. It is named after the Tokugawa capital of Edo (modern Tokyo) and is also known as the Tokugawa period.

Tokugawa supremacy began with the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, in which Tokugawa Ieyasu defeated several rivals for power, and was formalized in 1603 by the emperor of Japan. The period ended in 1867, when the last Tokugawa leader resigned, and was followed by the Meiji Restoration, which restored the emperor to power. Following centuries of civil war, the Edo period brought more than 250 years of peace, prosperity, and progress to Japan. Throughout the period, however, Japan remained closed to outside contact and constricted by a rigid class hierarchy.

Foundation of the EDO Government

In the early 16th century Japan was divided among more than 250 warring daimyo (landholding military lords). Each daimyo maintained absolute control over a certain region, or domain, and thus Japan was administered locally rather than by central authority. One daimyo, Oda Nobunaga, began the process of unifying the country, gaining control of all of central Japan by 1580. Upon Nobunaga’s death in 1582, his former general Toyotomi Hideyoshi continued the process by expanding the unified realm westward and then eastward. Tokugawa Ieyasu, who had gained territory and power as an ally of Nobunaga, emerged as Hideyoshi’s most powerful vassal. Hideyoshi became wary of the potential rivalry and had Ieyasu relocated to the fishing village of Edo in 1590.

Before his death in 1598, Hideyoshi installed a regency comprising Ieyasu and four other daimyo to conduct affairs of state until his son Hideyori was old enough to rule. Ieyasu, the most powerful of the regents, began forming alliances and consolidating power. The others soon challenged his authority, but Ieyasu defeated them in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. He secured appointment as shogun, a title meaning “military dictator,” from the imperial court in 1603. Although the shogun was in theory the delegate of the emperor, Ieyasu and his successors made every effort to limit the political influence of the imperial court. The court maintained its existence in Kyōto throughout the Edo period, but nearly all authority over national and foreign affairs resided with the shogun.

Ieyasu began fortifying the town of Edo as the headquarters of his bakufu (military government), often referred to in English as a shogunate. By confiscating territory from defeated daimyo throughout Japan and from Hideyoshi’s family, Ieyasu and his followers secured about one-quarter of Japan’s cultivable land. He left many existing daimyo in place, relocated others, and created many more from among his followers, giving them considerable power and autonomy. He appointed his son Tokugawa Hidetada shogun in 1605, establishing the precedent of transmitting the title of shogun through Tokugawa descendants. However, Ieyasu retained actual authority until his death in 1616.

During the early 17th century Ieyasu gradually strengthened Tokugawa rule. By 1612 all surviving daimyo were forced to swear loyalty to Ieyasu. Central authority evolved into the bakuhan system, a combination of the bakufu, which functioned as the central government, and the han, feudal domains under the control of the daimyo. The shogun had direct control over only about one-quarter of Japan’s productive land. The rest was dominated by the daimyo, who maintained their own governments, castle towns, warrior armies, tax and land systems, and courts. Some daimyo domains were holdovers from the period prior to military unification; others were newly created and granted by Ieyasu and his heirs. Imperial mandate gave the shogun the legal authority to dispossess daimyo from their land for rebellion, for misconduct, for failure to produce an heir, or simply to maintain Tokugawa supremacy—a power the shogunate used often in its first century of rule. Other laws issued in 1615 forbade daimyo from building fortifications, sheltering fugitives, or marrying without permission.

To further cement authority, Ieyasu established three categories of daimyo: shimpan (those related to the Tokugawa), fudai (“hereditary vassals”; those allied with the Tokugawa before 1600 or created after that time by the shogunate), and tozama (“outside lords”; those independent since before 1600). The shimpan enjoyed great prestige and held strategic territory near Edo but had no decision-making power in national affairs. The fudai, who had the least independent power, were given the most political authority. The tozama were seen as the worst threat, and many were destroyed or relocated to outer areas of Japan. Although they controlled vast realms and had considerable autonomy in their local affairs, the tozama were excluded from national affairs. In addition, the shogun often placed fudai in neighboring domains to keep the tozama in check and to prevent alliances among them.

Tokugawa supremacy was completed by Hidetada’s son and successor, Tokugawa Iemitsu, who became shogun when his father abdicated in 1623. Tokugawa vassals formed a permanent standing military force in Edo, and hundreds of thousands of client samurai (warriors retained by daimyo) increased the shogunate’s military strength. The shogunate assumed authority over justice, foreign contact, public highways, and religion.

Iemitsu introduced the system of sankin kōtai (alternate attendance) in 1635. This system forced the daimyo to spend half their time in Edo in attendance to the shogun and to leave their wives and children there all the time. Besides securing loyalty, the system drained the daimyo financially; each had to maintain at least two expensive mansions in Edo (one for his heir and one for himself during his stay) in addition to the one castle he was allowed in his domain. The daimyo also had to contribute to vast construction projects in Edo. The system spurred the city’s growth into a national capital and center of commerce.

Despite demands and restrictions from the shogun, the daimyo settled quickly into the centralized feudal system. Tokugawa rule kept daimyo from threatening one another’s holdings, thereby protecting them from one another. They remained virtually supreme within their domains and were not taxed directly. Most owed their status to Tokugawa favor: By the 1650s the majority of daimyo were Tokugawa creations. With no tradition of autonomous action, they had no incentive to challenge Tokugawa supremacy. Most followed shogunal precedents in administering their domains. Because of this, laws and institutions remained remarkably consistent across Japan, especially considering that about 75 percent of the country was effectively ruled by the largely autonomous daimyo.

The shogunate was never strong enough by itself to defeat any large daimyo alliance, but due to fudai daimyo support and mutual daimyo mistrust such an alliance never developed. The fudai, who acted as the shogunate’s senior counselors and other high officials, had every incentive to use the system for their own advantage against the tozama. By the time of Iemitsu’s death in 1651, the bakuhan system had stabilized; daimyo advisers who ruled for Iemitsu’s ten-year-old son, Tokugawa Ietsuna, never seriously threatened Tokugawa dominance.

Literature of India

Indian Literature, writings in the languages and literary traditions of the Indian subcontinent. The subcontinent consists of three countries: India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. The political division of the area into three nations took place in the 20th century; before that, the entire region was generally referred to as India. For centuries Indian society has been characterized by diversity—the people of modern India speak 18 major languages and many other minor languages and dialects; Urdu is the principal language of Pakistan, and Urdu and Bengali are used in Bangladesh. The people of the subcontinent also practice all the world’s major religions. Throughout its history, India has absorbed and transformed the cultures of the peoples who have moved through the region. As a result, the Indian literary tradition is one of the world’s oldest and richest.

Religion has long exercised a strong influence on Indian writing. The major religions of the area have been Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Islam. Throughout the history of Indian literature, certain religious doctrines have formed common threads. One such doctrine is karma—the chain of good and bad actions and their inevitable consequences, which result in the repeated birth and death of the soul. The mythology of the dominant Hindu religion portrays the deities Vishnu, Shiva, the Goddess (Devi), and others. This mythology has influenced Indian texts, from ancient epics in the Sanskrit language to medieval poems in the various languages of different regions to modern works in English.

The Vedas, which are Hindu sacred texts, are the earliest examples of Indian literature. The Vedas were composed between about 1500 bc and 1000 bc in Old Sanskrit, also called Vedic Sanskrit. This language belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family. Indo-Aryan languages dominated northern India in ancient times, and Sanskrit became the major language of Indian religious and philosophical writing and classical literature. It also served as a common language with which scholars from different regions could communicate. No longer spoken widely, it is maintained as a literary language in modern India, meaning that people still use it for written works.

The emergence of the popular religions Buddhism and Jainism in the 6th century bc gave rise to literature in Pali and in the several dialects of Sanskrit known as Prakrit (meaning “natural language”). Meanwhile, Tamil, a Dravidian language, emerged as the most important language in the south. A recorded literature in Tamil dates from the 1st century ad. Rich literary traditions have emerged in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, which are modern languages that developed from Old Tamil and its dialects.

Between the 10th and 18th centuries, the medieval dialects of the earlier languages evolved into the modern languages of India. Eighteen of these languages now have official status in India, as does English. As the different tongues evolved, a distinctive literature with particular styles and themes developed in each tongue. At the same time, Indian literature was influenced by the Persian language and its literature, which various Muslim conquerors brought to the Indian subcontinent. Muslims also introduced Islam to India, and Islamic philosophy and traditions affected Indian literature. After the British became active in India in the 1700s, English language and writing had a significant impact on Indian literature.

Oral traditions have always been important in Indian literature. Many storytellers present traditional Indian texts by reciting them, often with improvisation. Others use song, dance, or drama to tell tales. In both its oral and written forms, Indian literature has produced great works that have influenced national and regional literary traditions in other parts of the world.

Ramayana and Mahabharata Excerpts

Ramayana (Sanskrit, “Way of Rama”), shorter of the two great Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Mahabharata. Rich in its descriptions and poetic language, it consists of seven books and 24,000 couplets and has been translated into many languages. It was probably begun in the 3rd century bc, with the beginning and possibly the ending added later. The Ramayana tells of the birth and education of Rama, a prince and the seventh incarnation of the god Vishnu, and recounts his winning of the hand of Sita in marriage.  Displaced as rightful heir to his father's throne, Rama goes into exile, accompanied by Sita and by his brother Lakshmana. Sita is carried off by the demon king Ravana. With the aid of the monkey general Hanuman and an army of monkeys and bears, Rama, after a long search, slays Ravana and rescues Sita. Rama regains his throne and rules wisely. In the probable addition, Sita is accused in rumors of adultery during her captivity. Although innocent, she bears Rama's twin sons in exile, sheltered by the hermit Valmiki, said to be the author of the poem. After many years Rama and Sita are reunited.

Although basically a secular work, the Ramayana incorporates much of the sacred Vedic material (see Veda). Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman are widely revered as ideal embodiments of princely heroism, wifely and brotherly devotion, and loyal service, respectively. Reciting the Ramayana is considered a religious act, and scenes from the epic are dramatized throughout India and Southeast Asia. Known widely through translations and recensions (the best-known version being that of the 16th-century Hindu poet Tulsidas), the Ramayana exerted enormous influence on later Indian literature.

Mahabharata (Sanskrit, The Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty), longer of the two great epic poems of ancient India; the other is the Ramayana. Although both are basically secular works, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana are ritually recited and are thought to confer religious merit on their hearers.

The central theme of the Mahabharata is the contest between two noble families, the Pandavas and their blood relatives the Kauravas, for possession of a kingdom in northern India. The most important segment of the poem is the Bhagavad-Gita, a dialogue between Krishna, the eighth incarnation of the god Vishnu, and the Pandava hero Arjuna on the meaning of life. It has influenced devout Hindu believers for centuries. The Mahabharata was composed beginning about 400 bc and received numerous additions until about ad 400. It is divided into 18 books containing altogether about 200,000 lines of verse interspersed with short prose passages. The Harivansha, one of several late appendixes to the poem, discusses at length the life and genealogy of Krishna.

Kamasutra

The Kama Sutra (Sanskritpronounciation,  Kāmasūtra) is an ancient Indian Hindutext widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature written by Vātsyāyana. A portion of the work consists of practical advice on sexual intercourse. It is largely in prose, with many inserted anustubh poetry verses. "Kāma" which is one of the three goals of Hindu life, means sensual or sexual pleasure, and "sūtra" literally means a thread or line that holds things together, and more metaphorically refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a manual. Contrary to popular perception, especially in the western world, Kama sutra is not an exclusive sex manual; it presents itself as a guide to a virtuous and gracious living that discusses the nature of love, family life and other aspects pertaining to pleasure oriented faculties of human life.

The Kama Sutra is the oldest and most notable of a group of texts known generically as Kama Shastra (Sanskrit: Kāma Śāstra).  Traditionally, the first transmission of Kama Shastra or "Discipline of Kama" is attributed to Nandi the sacred bull, Shiva's doorkeeper, who was moved to sacred utterance by overhearing the lovemaking of the god and his wife Parvati and later recorded his utterances for the benefit of mankind.

Historian John Keay says that the Kama Sutra is a compendium that was collected into its present form in the 2nd century CE.