Niel Jonas Mojado Bogador
Thursday, 22 September 2011
THE SUMMARY OF ROMEO AND JULIET
The play begins with a large fight between the Capulets and the Montagues, two prestigious families in Verona, Italy. These families have been fighting for quite some time, and the Prince declares that their next public brawl will be punished by death. When the fight is over, Romeo’s cousin Benvolio tries to cheer him of his melancholy. Romeo reveals that he is in love with a woman named Rosaline, but she has chosen to live a life of chastity. Romeo and Benvolio are accidentally invited to their enemy’s party; Benvolio convinces Romeo to go.
At the party, Romeo locks eyes with a young woman named Juliet. They instantly fall in love, but they do not realize that their families are mortal enemies. When they realize each other’s identities, they are devastated, but they cannot help the way that they feel. Romeo sneaks into Juliet’s yard after the party and proclaims his love for her. She returns his sentiments and the two decide to marry. The next day, Romeo and Juliet are married by Friar Lawrence; an event witnessed by Juliet’s Nurse and Romeo’s loyal servant, Balthasar. They plan to meet in Juliet’s chambers that night.
Romeo visits his best friend Mercutio and his cousin Benvolio but his good mood is curtailed. Juliet’s cousin, Tybalt, starts a verbal quarrel with Romeo, which soon turns into a duel with Mercutio. Romeo tries to stop the fight but it is too late: Tybalt kills Mercutio. Romeo, enraged, retaliates by killing Tybalt. Once Romeo realizes the consequences of his actions, he hides at Friar Lawrence’s cell.
Friar Lawrence informs Romeo that he has been banished from Verona and will be killed if he stays. The Friar suggests Romeo spend the night with Juliet, then leave for Mantua in the morning. He tells Romeo that he will attempt to settle the Capulet and Montague dispute so Romeo can later return to a united family. Romeo takes his advice, spending one night with Juliet before fleeing Verona.
Juliet’s mother, completely unaware of her daughter's secret marriage to Romeo, informs Juliet that she will marry a man named Paris in a few days. Juliet, outraged, refuses to comply. Her parents tell her that she must marry Paris and the Nurse agrees with them. Juliet asks Friar Lawrence for advice, insisting she would rather die than marry Paris. Fr. Lawrence gives Juliet a potion which will make her appear dead and tells her to take it the night before the wedding. He promises to send word to Romeo - intending the two lovers be reunited in the Capulet vault.
Juliet drinks the potion and everybody assumes that she is dead — including Balthasar, who immediately tells Romeo. Friar Lawrence’s letter fails to reach Romeo, so he assumes that his wife is dead. He rushes to Juliet’s tomb and, in deep grief, drinks a vial of poison. Moments later, Juliet wakes to find Romeo dead and kills herself due to grief. Once the families discover what happened, they finally end their bitter feud. Thus the youngsters' deaths bring the families together. Romeo And Juliet is a true tragedy in the literary sense because the families gather sufficient self-knowledge to correct their behaviour but not until it is too late to save the situation.
Tuesday, 6 September 2011
Importance of Literature
"Literature adds to reality, it does not simply describe it. It enriches the necessary competencies that daily life requires and provides; and in this respect, it irrigates the deserts that our lives have already become." - C.S Lewis, a British scholar and novelist.
This adage is perhaps the most appropriate description of the importance of literature in our lives. Literature reminds us of stories, epics, sacred scriptures and classical works of the ancient and modern times. Literature is defined as the body of written works of a language, period or culture, produced by scholars and researchers, specialized in a given field. Why is literature important? Let us see.
Importance of Literature
As stated in the quotation by C.S. Lewis, literature not only describes reality but also adds to it. Yes, literature is not merely a depiction of reality; it is rather a value-addition. Literary works are portrayals of the thinking patterns and social norms prevalent in society. They are a depiction of the different facets of common man's life. Classical literary works serve as a food for thought and a tonic for imagination and creativity. Exposing an individual to good literary works, is equivalent to providing him/her with the finest of educational opportunities. On the other hand, the lack of exposure to classic literary works is equal to depriving an individual from an opportunity to grow as an individual.
Prose, poetry, drama, essays, fiction, literary works based on philosophy, art, history, religion, and culture and also scientific and legal writings are grouped under the category of literature. Creative nonfiction of the ancient times and literary journalism also fall under literature. Certain extremely technical writings such as those on logistics and mathematics are also believed to be a part of literature.
Some of the great literary works like the Bible and Indian epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata, among others, provide society with the guiding principles of life. Ancient poetic works by poets like Homer, Plato, Sappho, Horace and Virgil, Shakespeare's sonnets and notable poetry by W.B. Yeats, John Keats, Wordsworth, Tennyson and William Blake are timeless. The Lord of the Rings, The Godfather, A Tale of Two Cities, James Bond series are some of the best-selling books of all times. The Adventures of Pinocchio, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Winnie-the-Pooh were some of the greatest works in children's literature. The relatively recent Harry Potter series made record sales across the globe and carved a niche for J.K. Rowling. However, a discussion about children's authors would be incomplete without the mention of all-time popular authors like Aesop, Enid Blyton, Roald Dahl and Mark Twain.
It is through reading such great literary and poetic works, that one understands life. They help a person take a closer look at the different facets of life. In many ways, it can change one's perspective towards life. Lives of brilliant achievers and individuals who have made a valuable contribution to society, are sketched in their biographies. These works give the readers an insight into the lives of these eminent people, while also serving as a bible of ideals.
Literature serves as an enormous information base. Research works by famous inventors and literary works by notable scientists often narrate stories of their groundbreaking discoveries and inferences. Ongoing developments in the fields of science and technology are documented so that the world can know about them. Several ancient scriptures relating stories of human evolution and narratives of human life in the those times, have been of tremendous help to mankind. Thus, literature has always served as an authentic source of information from all around the world.
True, languages are the building blocks of literature. But the study of literature cannot be restricted to only studying languages. In fact, literature cannot be confined to an educational curriculum. A degree in language and literature is perhaps unable to provide one, with everything that literature can offer.
Literature, is definitely, much more than its literary meaning, which defines it as 'an acquaintance to letters'. It, in fact, lays the foundation of an enriched life; it adds 'life' to 'living'.
This adage is perhaps the most appropriate description of the importance of literature in our lives. Literature reminds us of stories, epics, sacred scriptures and classical works of the ancient and modern times. Literature is defined as the body of written works of a language, period or culture, produced by scholars and researchers, specialized in a given field. Why is literature important? Let us see.
Importance of Literature
As stated in the quotation by C.S. Lewis, literature not only describes reality but also adds to it. Yes, literature is not merely a depiction of reality; it is rather a value-addition. Literary works are portrayals of the thinking patterns and social norms prevalent in society. They are a depiction of the different facets of common man's life. Classical literary works serve as a food for thought and a tonic for imagination and creativity. Exposing an individual to good literary works, is equivalent to providing him/her with the finest of educational opportunities. On the other hand, the lack of exposure to classic literary works is equal to depriving an individual from an opportunity to grow as an individual.
Prose, poetry, drama, essays, fiction, literary works based on philosophy, art, history, religion, and culture and also scientific and legal writings are grouped under the category of literature. Creative nonfiction of the ancient times and literary journalism also fall under literature. Certain extremely technical writings such as those on logistics and mathematics are also believed to be a part of literature.
Some of the great literary works like the Bible and Indian epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata, among others, provide society with the guiding principles of life. Ancient poetic works by poets like Homer, Plato, Sappho, Horace and Virgil, Shakespeare's sonnets and notable poetry by W.B. Yeats, John Keats, Wordsworth, Tennyson and William Blake are timeless. The Lord of the Rings, The Godfather, A Tale of Two Cities, James Bond series are some of the best-selling books of all times. The Adventures of Pinocchio, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Winnie-the-Pooh were some of the greatest works in children's literature. The relatively recent Harry Potter series made record sales across the globe and carved a niche for J.K. Rowling. However, a discussion about children's authors would be incomplete without the mention of all-time popular authors like Aesop, Enid Blyton, Roald Dahl and Mark Twain.
It is through reading such great literary and poetic works, that one understands life. They help a person take a closer look at the different facets of life. In many ways, it can change one's perspective towards life. Lives of brilliant achievers and individuals who have made a valuable contribution to society, are sketched in their biographies. These works give the readers an insight into the lives of these eminent people, while also serving as a bible of ideals.
Literature serves as an enormous information base. Research works by famous inventors and literary works by notable scientists often narrate stories of their groundbreaking discoveries and inferences. Ongoing developments in the fields of science and technology are documented so that the world can know about them. Several ancient scriptures relating stories of human evolution and narratives of human life in the those times, have been of tremendous help to mankind. Thus, literature has always served as an authentic source of information from all around the world.
True, languages are the building blocks of literature. But the study of literature cannot be restricted to only studying languages. In fact, literature cannot be confined to an educational curriculum. A degree in language and literature is perhaps unable to provide one, with everything that literature can offer.
Literature, is definitely, much more than its literary meaning, which defines it as 'an acquaintance to letters'. It, in fact, lays the foundation of an enriched life; it adds 'life' to 'living'.
Sumerian Literature
Sumerian Literature, literature written in Sumerian in the ancient Mesopotamian kingdom of Sumer. It is the oldest literature in history. Sumerian inscriptions, in cuneiform, have been found on tens of thousands of pieces of pottery, on clay cylinder seals, and on clay tablets. More than 90 percent of these inscriptions are administrative, economic, and legal documents, including inventories, promissory notes, receipts, deeds of sale, marriage contracts, wills, and court decisions. The inscriptions make reference to hundreds of names of persons, deities, places, and products, and constitute the most important source material for the study of Sumerian society and economy. Many of the documents were dated by the scribes in relation to significant events and are therefore invaluable as historical sources.
Nearly 1000 inscriptions have been found on objects such as statues, stelae, vases, bricks, door sockets, and foundation deposits. Written in lofty prose style, the inscriptions contain much information about Sumerian history and religion.
More than 5000 tablets and fragments are inscribed with Sumerian literary and religious works. These works, including myths and epic tales, hymns and lamentations, proverbs, and essays, number in the hundreds. The various compositions range in length from hymns of fewer than 50 lines to myths of nearly 1000 lines. Except for the proverbs and some of the essays, all Sumerian literary and religious works are written in poetic form. Most of the literary tablets, which are of great value for the study of Sumerian intellectual development, date from the 18th century bc, but the majority of the inscribed works were composed centuries earlier. Although most of these literary tablets were excavated toward the beginning of the 20th century, it was not until the 1940s that a systematic and fruitful study of their contents began.
Babylonian Literature
Assyro-Babylonian Literature, texts written in the Assyro-Babylonian language between the 3rd millennium bc and roughly the time of Jesus Christ. Most Assyro-Babylonian cuneiform tablets deal with science, economics, administrative policies (in the form of letters), and law, including one of the greatest of all legal documents, the Code of Hammurabi (see Hammurabi, Code of). A wide variety of purely literary genres, however, also exists. Among them are epics and myths; historical chronicles and royal annals; historical romances in poetic form; hymns and prayers, incantations and rituals, and texts dealing with magic and divination; collections of proverbs and precepts; disputations such as fanciful literary debates between animals, trees, or the like; and remarkable poetic narratives dealing with the problem of human misery.
Most of this body of literature is in the Babylonian dialect of the southern part of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Those texts written in the Assyrian dialect of the north consist of historical inscriptions, business documents, oracles and rituals, and official letters; existing literary texts in Assyrian are copies or adaptations of Babylonian originals. The preservation of Assyro-Babylonian literature is, in fact, due to Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, who sent scholars to Babylonia to copy old Assyro-Babylonian cuneiform tablets; thousands of these transcriptions (many now in the British Museum in London) were collected in his library at Nineveh.
The longest Babylonian epic poems are the Creation Epic and the Gilgamesh Epic. The former, consisting of seven tablets, deals with the struggle between cosmic order and primeval chaos. The secular Gilgamesh Epic, written about 2000 bc on 12 cuneiform tablets, concerns the hero's fruitless search for immortality. Masterfully woven together from an older series of separate Sumerian tales, this epic poem had great popular appeal in antiquity. It is of interest to modern biblical scholars because of its reference to a Noah-like character who survived a great flood. See Deluge.
The Epic of Zû tells of the theft of the Tablets of Destiny from the gods by the evil bird Zû and of their recovery by the warrior god Ninurta. The search for the “plant of birth” by the shepherd Etana, who ultimately founded the first dynasty after the deluge, is related in the Epic of Etana. Among other Babylonian epics and myths are The Descent of Ishtar to the Nether World; Atrahasis, which deals with human sin and its punishment through plagues and the deluge; and Nergal and Ereshkigal, concerning the marriage of the divinities who ruled the netherworld.
Other important works are The Babylonian Theodicy, a poetic dialogue about a Job-like “righteous sufferer”; a satirical dialogue, The Master and His Obliging Servant; and a recently discovered folktale, The Poor Man of Nippur, which seems to be the ancestor of one of the stories in the Arabian Nights.
Among significant historical romances in poetic form are The Cuthaean Legend, concerning the defeat of King Naram-Sin (reigned about 2255-2218 bc) of Akkad; The King of Battle, dealing with a military expedition to Anatolia led by Sargon I (reigned about 2335-2279 bc) of Akkad; and The Epic of Tukulti-Ninurta, describing the defeat of the Babylonians by the Assyrians.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.Excerpt of Gilgamesh
First written down around 2000 BCE, the story of Gilgamesh is one of the oldest surviving works of worldliterature. Based on an actual historical figure, King Gilgamesh of Uruk (reigned c. 2700 BCE), it recounts
Gilgamesh’s travels, adventures, and his search for immortality. In the process, it provides evidence of ancient
Mesopotamian ideas about death, the place of humanity in the universe, and societal organization. The work
survives in multiple copies, and it seems to have been a compilation of several hero narratives associated with
Gilgamesh, his rival-turned-friend Enkidu, and the gods and men they encountered throughout their travels.
This selection draws on multiple sections of the “Epic”, and it gives a flavor of the whole.
It could be argued that any story more than four thousand years old deserves the close attention of modern students of literature. The appeal of this epic, however, goes far beyond its literary antiquity. Gilgamesh abounds with drama, conflict, and charismatic characters, and its topics are many and varied. These include such enduring human concerns as the fear of death, the need for true friendship, the importance of achieving great deeds and displaying virtuous traits (such as courage, loyalty, and leadership) and—perhaps most vital of all—the glory and wisdom to be found in the search for truth. On a basic human level, the narrative reveals many ways in which these ancient peoples differed from modern humans, but also points to surprising similarities. Some scholars may quarrel with Bryson's claims that this is 'man's first story,' but there can be no question that Gilgamesh is the world's first genuine epic hero.
A number of later epic and legendary heroes—including Odysseus, Aeneas, and Beowulf—resemble Gilgamesh, and it is thought that some of them were at least partly based on his character. Certain biblical narratives, most notably the story of Noah and the Flood, may also have been based on episodes from this epic. Scholars are not in total agreement, but there is a strong likelihood that the composers of the Old Testament were familiar either with Gilgamesh or its sources, the oldest of which probably existed in an oral tradition.
Bryson's version relates the story in a straightforward and clear manner. In her 'Explanation' at the close of the text, she writes that she has not tried to retranslate the work, which has been rendered into English by several scholars, nor to compile a series of readings of the original. Rather, she has retold the story in an accessible fashion so that today's readers can appreciate it. Several confusing and inconsistent elements of the original have simply been omitted. And in a few passages, a clarifying transition has been provided. The result is a coherent narrative that faithfully communicates the tone of the story.
Of further interest in this version are the realistic, colorful illustrations—seventy-five of them—that accompany the text. Many are based on archeological evidence and give a sense of the folkways of the people of that era and an impression of the appearances of their gods.
| SETTING |
The first evidence that the epic of Gilgamesh existed came to light when English archeologists in the nineteenth century discovered an archive of ancient clay tablets in the Middle East. In subsequent years, more tablets were found at other archeological sites in the region. The inscriptions on these tablets were written in cuneiform, an early form of writing that inscribed wedge-shaped characters into soft clay. The clay was often baked into tablets, just like pottery, to make a permanent record, and many of these have survived for thousands of years.
Cuneiform writing was used by the ancient Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian peoples, and their strange and difficult languages resisted translation for many years. What finally emerged after years of diligent research was the fragmentary narrative of Gilgamesh, a legendary king of the great city of Uruk, which is mentioned in the Bible as Erech. Archeologists have located the site of this city near the present-day village of Warka in southern Iraq. The city of Uruk stood at the center of the kingdom of Sumer, which flourished around 3000 b.c. in the area of southern Mesopotamia.
The epic's geographic setting is real, and some of the characters may also have been real. Gilgamesh himself is probably based on a historical figure, whose life was later embellished with myth and legend. The time of the story is impossible to fix exactly, since there are so many versions and translations of the various texts. Bryson's interpretation is simply placed in and around Uruk on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in very ancient times.
Some locations mentioned in the text, while probably based on places in the actual world, are presented as the Mesopotamian and Sumerian imagination pictured them. Many can now be tentatively identified with real places. For example, the 'Bitter River' which Gilgamesh crosses late in the narrative is probably the Persian Gulf.
| THEMES AND CHARACTERS |
As is usual of epics, there are three types of characters in Gilgamesh—the human, the divine, and those who partake in the natures of both. The hero Gilgamesh is two-thirds god and one-third man, a fact that has special significance during his final quest.
The main 'human' characters are Ninsun, a skilled interpreter of dreams; Sabitu, the sensible wine maiden; Utnapishtim, who escapes the destruction of a great flood like the biblical Noah; Harim, the temple priestess; and Enkidu, the friend and companion of Gilgamesh. Enkidu was 'created' out of clay by one of the gods and is, therefore, reminiscent of the biblical Adam.
Of greater interest to many readers are the gods and goddesses, who are led by Anu, the Lord of the Skies. The god Ea rules the 'deep waters,' and Enlil is ruler over the earth. In the plot of the story, the two most active deities are the benevolent Shamash, god of the sun, and Ishtar, goddess of love. Ishtar is unreliable and often painfully willful and eccentric. These traits bring about the death of Gilgamesh's companion, Enkidu.
The lesser gods are still impressive—the fearsome Anunnaki, the demons of the Underworld with their 'torches of lightning'; Aruru, who creates Enkidu simply by scooping up a handful of clay and shaping it into the desired form; and the quasi-divine monster Humbaba, thought by some scholars to be a precursor of the fire-breathing dragons found in many tales and legends. Humbaba, who has enormous strength, is the divinely appointed guardian of the cedar forests. The episode in which Gilgamesh and Enkidu vanquish Humbaba contains some of the liveliest action in the epic.
Bryson has helpfully divided the text into two parts, aptly titled 'The Temper of the Gods' and 'The Wanderings of Gilgamesh.' Each of these two sections is further divided into episodes, and the titles of these short chapters suggest the movement of the story. Although the narrative is episodic, the incidents are connected by their focus on the hero and by the story's underlying themes.
Several themes are typical of ancient tales in general and of epics in particular. Perhaps the most popular of these is the quest motif. Human life seems to have appeared to the ancients as a never-ending quest for some valued treasure, whether material or symbolic. From the very start, where the elders of the city undertake a kind of verbal quest to persuade the gods to create a mighty foe to oppose their overactive king, to Gilgamesh's final journey to discover the secret of eternal life, each incident can be interpreted as a search for an important element of truth or a precious goal.
A second theme appears at the heart of the chapter entitled 'The Terrible Battle between Gilgamesh and Enkidu.' During this violent combat, much is made of points of honor involving non-interference and the refusal to take unfair advantage of an opponent. For example, the elders order the citizens of Uruk not to intercede even when Gilgamesh appears to be losing. Because Enkidu is unarmed, Gilgamesh refuses to resort to his axe or spear, which would clinch the victory but cost him honor. Because he has been such a worthy and honorable opponent, the struggle ends with Enkidu embracing Gilgamesh as a new-found comrade, praising him instead of killing him. Honor and 'fairness' are essential traits for a worthy hero.
Other themes recur forcefully, such as the need for sleep. During Gilgamesh's quest for eternal life, which is a characteristic only of divinities, his 'ancestor' Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that the gods do not need sleep. Gilgamesh struggles to remain awake, but soon falls into a sound slumber. This causes Utnapishtim to remark that unless Gilgamesh rids himself of this weakness he will not be able to attain eternal life.
Closely related to the need for sleep are repeated references to dreams and their significance. The principal activity of Ninsun is interpreting dreams, although Gilgamesh and Enkidu both practice the art when the need arises. For example, when they approach the domain of Humbaba, Gilgamesh proposes that they sleep, dream, and then try to understand the meaning of their dreams. Clearly, as is true of many other societies, the Mesopotamians took dreams very seriously and believed that they conveyed significant information about the future and the plans of the gods.
Readers may more readily grasp the epic's emphasis on material objects and physical achievements. This stress emerges first in the tendency towards exaggeration. Gilgamesh and Enkidu are presented as about twelve feet tall, and their deeds require superhuman abilities. Gilgamesh earns the reputation of being a great builder by erecting the astoundingly high walls of Uruk, and he takes considerable pride in his skills. At the end of the story after he has failed in his quest, he returns to be comforted by the magnificence of the city he has built.
At different points in the story, both Ninsun and Gilgamesh accuse Shamash of instilling the hero with lofty and dangerous ambitions that lead to perilous exploits. This indicates a recurring literary theme that emerges in later epics, such as Homer's Odyssey and Vergil's Aeneid. How much free will can be attributed to even the greatest of heroes as opposed to some degree of control by fate, destiny, or the gods?
If one were to summarize the central theme of this epic, it might be that life is given meaning by the pursuit of worthy, honorable, and virtuous activities, not through unrealistic goals nor vain glory. This is movingly depicted at the epic's climax when Gilgamesh renounces his worldly power and possessions and joins Enkidu in death.
LITERARY QUALITIES |
While much of the appeal of the story derives from the essential qualities of the original narrative, Bryson's skillful use of language and the coherence of her characters add considerably to the reader's enjoyment. Because of the episodic structure of the narrative, Bryson must quickly and concisely reveal the nature of her characters. She accomplishes this primarily through believable dialogue. For example, when Enkidu laments his loss of natural purity after the wild animals turn away from him, the reader is sympathetic with the pain he expresses. Both Enkidu and Gilgamesh are unquestionably brave. Yet both have moments of fear and self-doubt, making them seem well-rounded and human.
Through focused description, Bryson provides added touches of realism to the people and events. When Ninsun prays to Shamash for help, she first ascends to the roof so that her words can more easily reach the heavens. After her opening appeal, she waits a few moments to give the phrases time to rise to the god's ears. This passage not only suggests a sensible reverence for the deity but also enforces the presence of Nunsun as an experienced and devout priestess. Pertinent figures of speech also enliven the story, as when Humbaba's enormous moving arms are compared to the masts of a ship.
Bryson's text supplies a useful introduction of the gods and a helpful map of the territory of the story. Some of the places, such as the city of Uruk, are real. Other places are imaginary, such as the tunnel under the earth that connects night and day; or Dilmun, the Mesopotamian equivalent of the Garden of Eden. Authentic cuneiform quotations are sprinkled throughout the pages of the book, giving a sense of the ancient language in which the original was written.
Bryson has blended the very old and complicated set of fragments of an absorbing myth in her retelling so that modern readers may not only enjoy it but also ponder its mysteries. One may never know why Gilgamesh does not immediately eat the magic plant of eternal life when he has gotten it from the depths of the Bitter River—but, one might surmise that he wishes to take most of it home to help his people. Such open-ended matters remain a subject for lively speculation.
| SOCIAL SENSITIVITY |
Each of the principal gods of Gilgamesh represents an aspect or force of nature, and such pantheism is not unusual in old myths. Although a modern reader might be tempted to label the religion of the Mesopotamians as mere 'superstition,' the text repeatedly demonstrates that these people took their deities seriously. The reader must accept the fact that the persons in the tale have a close relationship with their gods, which are assigned human traits as well as supernatural powers. What is striking is the erratic behavior of the deities. Even Anu, the chief of the gods, argues in an almost perverse human manner with the elders when they propose the creation of Enkidu. He likes Gilgamesh and enjoys the high walls that he has built simply because he likes to sit on them and watch the activities of the humans in the city.
An unsettling aspect of religion in the epic is its grim vision of the afterlife. The souls of the dead descend to the Under-world, where they are judged and then treated according to their deeds. The picture of Enkidu's body turning into moss, weeds, and roots is chilling. On his deathbed, Enkidu dreams of the awful Zu, a great bird that will peck at him and tear his body apart. In an earlier passage, Ishtar frightens the other gods by threatening to open the gates of the Underworld. Once released, the dead would fill the earth, eat all the food, and cause a great famine. The intimidation works well. The gods turn away in fear and allow Ishtar to form the Bull of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh and Enkidu.
In his report to Gilgamesh on the conditions of the dead, Enkidu says that they are rewarded not on the basis of their temporal position on earth (kings or servants) but on the basis of the number of sons they have produced. The implied prejudice against the female gender was an element of many ancient societies and should be viewed in cultural context.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
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