Excerpt of Gilgamesh

First written down around 2000 BCE, the story of Gilgamesh is one of the oldest surviving works of world
literature. Based on an actual historical figure, King Gilgamesh of Uruk (reigned c. 2700 BCE), it recounts
Gilgamesh’s travels, adventures, and his search for immortality. In the process, it provides evidence of ancient
Mesopotamian ideas about death, the place of humanity in the universe, and societal organization. The work
survives in multiple copies, and it seems to have been a compilation of several hero narratives associated with
Gilgamesh, his rival-turned-friend Enkidu, and the gods and men they encountered throughout their travels.
This selection draws on multiple sections of the “Epic”, and it gives a flavor of the whole.

      It could be argued that any story more than four thousand years old deserves the close attention of modern students of literature. The appeal of this epic, however, goes far beyond its literary antiquity. Gilgamesh abounds with drama, conflict, and charismatic characters, and its topics are many and varied. These include such enduring human concerns as the fear of death, the need for true friendship, the importance of achieving great deeds and displaying virtuous traits (such as courage, loyalty, and leadership) and—perhaps most vital of all—the glory and wisdom to be found in the search for truth. On a basic human level, the narrative reveals many ways in which these ancient peoples differed from modern humans, but also points to surprising similarities. Some scholars may quarrel with Bryson's claims that this is 'man's first story,' but there can be no question that Gilgamesh is the world's first genuine epic hero.

A number of later epic and legendary heroes—including Odysseus, Aeneas, and Beowulf—resemble Gilgamesh, and it is thought that some of them were at least partly based on his character. Certain biblical narratives, most notably the story of Noah and the Flood, may also have been based on episodes from this epic. Scholars are not in total agreement, but there is a strong likelihood that the composers of the Old Testament were familiar either with Gilgamesh or its sources, the oldest of which probably existed in an oral tradition.

Bryson's version relates the story in a straightforward and clear manner. In her 'Explanation' at the close of the text, she writes that she has not tried to retranslate the work, which has been rendered into English by several scholars, nor to compile a series of readings of the original. Rather, she has retold the story in an accessible fashion so that today's readers can appreciate it. Several confusing and inconsistent elements of the original have simply been omitted. And in a few passages, a clarifying transition has been provided. The result is a coherent narrative that faithfully communicates the tone of the story.

Of further interest in this version are the realistic, colorful illustrations—seventy-five of them—that accompany the text. Many are based on archeological evidence and give a sense of the folkways of the people of that era and an impression of the appearances of their gods.

SETTING

The first evidence that the epic of Gilgamesh existed came to light when English archeologists in the nineteenth century discovered an archive of ancient clay tablets in the Middle East. In subsequent years, more tablets were found at other archeological sites in the region. The inscriptions on these tablets were written in cuneiform, an early form of writing that inscribed wedge-shaped characters into soft clay. The clay was often baked into tablets, just like pottery, to make a permanent record, and many of these have survived for thousands of years.

Cuneiform writing was used by the ancient Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian peoples, and their strange and difficult languages resisted translation for many years. What finally emerged after years of diligent research was the fragmentary narrative of Gilgamesh, a legendary king of the great city of Uruk, which is mentioned in the Bible as Erech. Archeologists have located the site of this city near the present-day village of Warka in southern Iraq. The city of Uruk stood at the center of the kingdom of Sumer, which flourished around 3000 b.c. in the area of southern Mesopotamia.

The epic's geographic setting is real, and some of the characters may also have been real. Gilgamesh himself is probably based on a historical figure, whose life was later embellished with myth and legend. The time of the story is impossible to fix exactly, since there are so many versions and translations of the various texts. Bryson's interpretation is simply placed in and around Uruk on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in very ancient times.

Some locations mentioned in the text, while probably based on places in the actual world, are presented as the Mesopotamian and Sumerian imagination pictured them. Many can now be tentatively identified with real places. For example, the 'Bitter River' which Gilgamesh crosses late in the narrative is probably the Persian Gulf.

THEMES AND CHARACTERS

As is usual of epics, there are three types of characters in Gilgamesh—the human, the divine, and those who partake in the natures of both. The hero Gilgamesh is two-thirds god and one-third man, a fact that has special significance during his final quest.

The main 'human' characters are Ninsun, a skilled interpreter of dreams; Sabitu, the sensible wine maiden; Utnapishtim, who escapes the destruction of a great flood like the biblical Noah; Harim, the temple priestess; and Enkidu, the friend and companion of Gilgamesh. Enkidu was 'created' out of clay by one of the gods and is, therefore, reminiscent of the biblical Adam.

Of greater interest to many readers are the gods and goddesses, who are led by Anu, the Lord of the Skies. The god Ea rules the 'deep waters,' and Enlil is ruler over the earth. In the plot of the story, the two most active deities are the benevolent Shamash, god of the sun, and Ishtar, goddess of love. Ishtar is unreliable and often painfully willful and eccentric. These traits bring about the death of Gilgamesh's companion, Enkidu.

The lesser gods are still impressive—the fearsome Anunnaki, the demons of the Underworld with their 'torches of lightning'; Aruru, who creates Enkidu simply by scooping up a handful of clay and shaping it into the desired form; and the quasi-divine monster Humbaba, thought by some scholars to be a precursor of the fire-breathing dragons found in many tales and legends. Humbaba, who has enormous strength, is the divinely appointed guardian of the cedar forests. The episode in which Gilgamesh and Enkidu vanquish Humbaba contains some of the liveliest action in the epic.

Bryson has helpfully divided the text into two parts, aptly titled 'The Temper of the Gods' and 'The Wanderings of Gilgamesh.' Each of these two sections is further divided into episodes, and the titles of these short chapters suggest the movement of the story. Although the narrative is episodic, the incidents are connected by their focus on the hero and by the story's underlying themes.

Several themes are typical of ancient tales in general and of epics in particular. Perhaps the most popular of these is the quest motif. Human life seems to have appeared to the ancients as a never-ending quest for some valued treasure, whether material or symbolic. From the very start, where the elders of the city undertake a kind of verbal quest to persuade the gods to create a mighty foe to oppose their overactive king, to Gilgamesh's final journey to discover the secret of eternal life, each incident can be interpreted as a search for an important element of truth or a precious goal.

A second theme appears at the heart of the chapter entitled 'The Terrible Battle between Gilgamesh and Enkidu.' During this violent combat, much is made of points of honor involving non-interference and the refusal to take unfair advantage of an opponent. For example, the elders order the citizens of Uruk not to intercede even when Gilgamesh appears to be losing. Because Enkidu is unarmed, Gilgamesh refuses to resort to his axe or spear, which would clinch the victory but cost him honor. Because he has been such a worthy and honorable opponent, the struggle ends with Enkidu embracing Gilgamesh as a new-found comrade, praising him instead of killing him. Honor and 'fairness' are essential traits for a worthy hero.

Other themes recur forcefully, such as the need for sleep. During Gilgamesh's quest for eternal life, which is a characteristic only of divinities, his 'ancestor' Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that the gods do not need sleep. Gilgamesh struggles to remain awake, but soon falls into a sound slumber. This causes Utnapishtim to remark that unless Gilgamesh rids himself of this weakness he will not be able to attain eternal life.

Closely related to the need for sleep are repeated references to dreams and their significance. The principal activity of Ninsun is interpreting dreams, although Gilgamesh and Enkidu both practice the art when the need arises. For example, when they approach the domain of Humbaba, Gilgamesh proposes that they sleep, dream, and then try to understand the meaning of their dreams. Clearly, as is true of many other societies, the Mesopotamians took dreams very seriously and believed that they conveyed significant information about the future and the plans of the gods.

Readers may more readily grasp the epic's emphasis on material objects and physical achievements. This stress emerges first in the tendency towards exaggeration. Gilgamesh and Enkidu are presented as about twelve feet tall, and their deeds require superhuman abilities. Gilgamesh earns the reputation of being a great builder by erecting the astoundingly high walls of Uruk, and he takes considerable pride in his skills. At the end of the story after he has failed in his quest, he returns to be comforted by the magnificence of the city he has built.

At different points in the story, both Ninsun and Gilgamesh accuse Shamash of instilling the hero with lofty and dangerous ambitions that lead to perilous exploits. This indicates a recurring literary theme that emerges in later epics, such as Homer's Odyssey and Vergil's Aeneid. How much free will can be attributed to even the greatest of heroes as opposed to some degree of control by fate, destiny, or the gods?

If one were to summarize the central theme of this epic, it might be that life is given meaning by the pursuit of worthy, honorable, and virtuous activities, not through unrealistic goals nor vain glory. This is movingly depicted at the epic's climax when Gilgamesh renounces his worldly power and possessions and joins Enkidu in death.

LITERARY QUALITIES

While much of the appeal of the story derives from the essential qualities of the original narrative, Bryson's skillful use of language and the coherence of her characters add considerably to the reader's enjoyment. Because of the episodic structure of the narrative, Bryson must quickly and concisely reveal the nature of her characters. She accomplishes this primarily through believable dialogue. For example, when Enkidu laments his loss of natural purity after the wild animals turn away from him, the reader is sympathetic with the pain he expresses. Both Enkidu and Gilgamesh are unquestionably brave. Yet both have moments of fear and self-doubt, making them seem well-rounded and human.

Through focused description, Bryson provides added touches of realism to the people and events. When Ninsun prays to Shamash for help, she first ascends to the roof so that her words can more easily reach the heavens. After her opening appeal, she waits a few moments to give the phrases time to rise to the god's ears. This passage not only suggests a sensible reverence for the deity but also enforces the presence of Nunsun as an experienced and devout priestess. Pertinent figures of speech also enliven the story, as when Humbaba's enormous moving arms are compared to the masts of a ship.

Bryson's text supplies a useful introduction of the gods and a helpful map of the territory of the story. Some of the places, such as the city of Uruk, are real. Other places are imaginary, such as the tunnel under the earth that connects night and day; or Dilmun, the Mesopotamian equivalent of the Garden of Eden. Authentic cuneiform quotations are sprinkled throughout the pages of the book, giving a sense of the ancient language in which the original was written.

Bryson has blended the very old and complicated set of fragments of an absorbing myth in her retelling so that modern readers may not only enjoy it but also ponder its mysteries. One may never know why Gilgamesh does not immediately eat the magic plant of eternal life when he has gotten it from the depths of the Bitter River—but, one might surmise that he wishes to take most of it home to help his people. Such open-ended matters remain a subject for lively speculation.

SOCIAL SENSITIVITY

Each of the principal gods of Gilgamesh represents an aspect or force of nature, and such pantheism is not unusual in old myths. Although a modern reader might be tempted to label the religion of the Mesopotamians as mere 'superstition,' the text repeatedly demonstrates that these people took their deities seriously. The reader must accept the fact that the persons in the tale have a close relationship with their gods, which are assigned human traits as well as supernatural powers. What is striking is the erratic behavior of the deities. Even Anu, the chief of the gods, argues in an almost perverse human manner with the elders when they propose the creation of Enkidu. He likes Gilgamesh and enjoys the high walls that he has built simply because he likes to sit on them and watch the activities of the humans in the city.

An unsettling aspect of religion in the epic is its grim vision of the afterlife. The souls of the dead descend to the Under-world, where they are judged and then treated according to their deeds. The picture of Enkidu's body turning into moss, weeds, and roots is chilling. On his deathbed, Enkidu dreams of the awful Zu, a great bird that will peck at him and tear his body apart. In an earlier passage, Ishtar frightens the other gods by threatening to open the gates of the Underworld. Once released, the dead would fill the earth, eat all the food, and cause a great famine. The intimidation works well. The gods turn away in fear and allow Ishtar to form the Bull of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh and Enkidu.

In his report to Gilgamesh on the conditions of the dead, Enkidu says that they are rewarded not on the basis of their temporal position on earth (kings or servants) but on the basis of the number of sons they have produced. The implied prejudice against the female gender was an element of many ancient societies and should be viewed in cultural context.

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