INTRODUCTION
Confucius (551 or 552-479 bc), Chinese philosopher and educator, one of the most important individuals in Chinese history, and one of the most influential figures in world history. His name in Chinese is Kongzi (also spelled K’ung-tzu).
Confucius Life
Much about the life of Confucius is uncertain. He was born in the state of Lu, in what is now Shandong (Shantung) province, during the second half of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty (1045?-256 bc). China was then divided into a number of states. Although these states were under the authority of a single Zhou king, they functioned quite independently and often engaged in disastrous wars.
Confucius’s father apparently died when Confucius was young. His death left the family in poverty, so that Confucius had to work at menial tasks as a youth to help support the family. Somehow, he managed to obtain an education. As an adult he impressed others with his learning and good character, so that he began to acquire students and disciples. Confucius’s experiences growing up may have contributed to his willingness to instruct any student, regardless of wealth or social class, and to judge others on their actual character, rather than on their social standing.
Confucius was eventually appointed magistrate of justice in Lu. He resigned, apparently in protest over government corruption. After his resignation Confucius spent the next few years traveling through various states in China, hoping to find a ruler who would put his philosophy into practice. During his travels he came close to starvation at one point and was almost murdered on another occasion. Failing to find the ruler he was looking for, Confucius returned to Lu. He was given only a minor position in government, but several of his disciples attained high office in Lu and elsewhere.
After his death Confucius’s disciples collected his sayings in a work now known as the Lunyu (Lun-yü, Analects), a book in 20 sections. Scholars generally agree that the last 5 sections were composed long after the time of Confucius’s immediate disciples. There is intense disagreement over how much of the first 15 sections can reliably be attributed to Confucius or his students.
Confucius's Teachings
Confucius shared a belief, common in his time, that China had in the past enjoyed almost utopian periods of peace and prosperity under the rule of “sage kings.” Confucius held that these wise kings possessed de (te), meaning “virtue” or a sort of charisma that comes from being a good person and that makes others want to follow one. Consequently, the sage kings were able to govern primarily through the power of setting a good ethical example, rather than through military force or criminal penalties.
According to Confucius a good person has ren (or jen), translated as “humaneness” or “benevolence,” which is the summation of all other virtues. For example, a person with ren will always do what is appropriate for his social role. This yi (i, or “righteousness”) involves being obedient to one’s ruler and one’s parents. Obedience is not blind, however. Confucius stresses that we must encourage our superiors to act ethically and resign our position if the ruler persists in unethical behavior. A ren person does what is right regardless of the danger to himself or herself and regardless of the hardship this requires. This person also is faithful in his words: honest, but not glib. Finally, all virtues have to be applied in a flexible manner that shows an appreciation of specific circumstances and the people in them.
Confucius discouraged his students from worrying about the afterlife. Instead, he encouraged them to live in harmony and to help other people through government service, teaching, or just being a good family member. Confucius thought that there was great joy to be found in everyday family life, participating in communal activities, enjoying music, and spending time with one’s friends.
Confucius stressed three institutions that both express and help cultivate the virtues: rituals, education, and the family. Rituals can include everything from funeral ceremonies to sacrifices to the spirits of ancestors to the proper way to dress, eat dinner, or treat a guest. Confucius believed that performing rituals with a spirit of reverence was not only a sign of virtue, but could also help cultivate the virtues in oneself. He thought that there was only one correct set of rituals: those handed down by the sage kings of the past. Failing to perform the correct rituals, or performing them without proper reverence, was both a cause and a symptom of bad character and social decay.
In educating his disciples Confucius stressed the Shijing (Shih ching, “Book of Songs”), an anthology of poems from a variety of sources that was already old and revered by his era. He encouraged his disciples to find metaphorical meanings with ethical significance in the poems. For example, a poem that describes a team of horses as “never deviating” from their path should be read as a metaphor for following the way of the sage kings. Confucius was a demanding teacher who expected his students to think carefully about what he taught them and to apply it in their own lives.
Confucius’s commitment to the family is revealed in a famous anecdote in which a ruler brags to Confucius about how someone in his state is so upright that he had turned in his own father for being a thief. Confucius suggests that he prefers the standard in his own state, where fathers and sons protect each other. One of the reasons that the family is so important, according to Confucius, is that we first learn to love and respect others in our family. This respect becomes the basis of virtue in later life.
Confucian Tradition
Confucius described himself as a “transmitter and not an innovator,” because he believed that all his teachings were nothing more than the way of the ancient sages. However, he was more original than he realized, and he started one of the great intellectual traditions. This tradition is known in China as the rujia (ju-chia, or “School of the Scholars”) but is called Confucianism in the West. Confucians all try to follow the Way of Confucius as they understand it, but they often disagree sharply over what this way is. For example, Confucius said almost nothing about human nature, but his later followers debated whether human nature was good, as Mencius argued in the 4th century bc, or bad, as Xunzi (Hsün-tzu) claimed in the 3rd century bc.
Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi), a philosopher who lived in the 12th century ad, influenced thinking on Confucius for centuries. His views were adopted by the government and became the official state orthodoxy. Zhu Xi identified the Sishu (Four Books) as the core of Confucian philosophy. They comprised the Analects, the Mencius (Book of Mencius) by a follower of Confucius, the Greater Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean. The latter two presumably contain Confucius’s philosophical utterances, systematically arranged and with commentaries by his disciples. Zhu Xi’s commentaries on these works interpreted them in the light of one another and in terms of a philosophical system that was influenced by Zen Buddhism. This interpretation continues to influence how many people understand Confucius even today.
During China’s Cultural Revolution, from 1966 to 1976, Confucius was condemned by the Communist government as an element of China’s “feudal” past. However, economic and social changes in China since the 1980s have led to renewed interest in and respect for Confucius and Confucianism.
From a modern perspective, Confucius’s worldview has certain limitations. He was ignorant of cultural diversity; he accepted the sexism of his society; he shows no interest in natural science or technology; his political philosophy is undemocratic; and he gives insufficient stress to social change. However, Confucius will no doubt continue to inspire people across the world with his vision of social harmony, his insight into human virtue, and his techniques for cultivating ethical individuals.
II. Lao Tze
Very little is known about Lao Tze. So little that even his surname is clouded in uncertainties. However, it is generally accepted that his name was Li Er (李耳) or Lao Tan (老聃), and was born in the state of Chu (楚國) during the Zhou dynasty (周朝), but the date of his birth is another mystery. Another accepted fact is that he was a keeper of archive (守藏室之史) in the Zhou court. It was while working in this capacity that Confucius (孔子) came and consulted him on matters of ceremonies and rites. Based upon this encounter it is assumed that he was older than Confucius.
It is unclear when he left this post. Legend has it that after leaving he decided to travel westward riding an oxen. At this time a purple cloud started to hover over him. Thus this journey is generally referred to as the Purple Cloud from the East (紫氣東來). One day he came to China’s westmost outpost (函谷關). The guardian of this outpost had heard of Lao Tze, his learning and his westward journey. He specially ordered his underlings to keep their eyes open for Lao Tze and when spotted should reported to him immediately. Upon meeting Lao Tze, he accorded Lao Tze the respects of a student to a teacher and asked Lao Tze to leave some of his wisdom in the form of writing behind. At this point Lao Tze wrote a 5,000 word essay titled Tao Te Ching (道德經). After he finished the essay, Lao Tze continued his westward journey and not to be heard from again.
Here is a brief listing of some of the ideas and concepts in the Tao Te Ching:
- Tao (道) is the invisible, intangible, and indescribable force which created the universe.
- Ideas and matters exist in pairs and are relative in that the pairs are always opposite yet depending on the other for its own existence. An example is good and evil. We know good when we encounter it only because we have known or encountered evil.
- Strength of the weak or soft is greater than the forceful or hard because the hard will break while the soft will bend and rebound.
- Advocated a return to the simple life of bygone days when people were self-sufficient and uneducated.
- For government he advocated sparsely populated small states where people have very little contact with each other.
- Most important of all is the concept which can loosely translated as let it be (無為).
Hundreds of years later, the Taoists (道教) while battling Buddhism (佛教) for followers adapted Tao Te Ching as their religion’s dogma. In turn they honoured Lao Tze as the founder of their religion. However, honours didn’t really started to pour in until the Tang Dynasty (唐朝).
Keep in mind that since the latter part of the Han Dynasty, bloodline and ranked clans (門第望族) were of utmost important. At one point clan membership was the only requirement for high ranking positions in government (上品無寒門，下品無望族). Capability and learning played no part whatsoever. Yes, this is a caste system. Its meridian was during the North-south period (南北朝). The two most powerful clans were Wang (王) and Xie (謝). Stories had it that during the early Tang dynasty the emperor had trouble finding a spouse for one his daughters as the royal family was ranked six on list of desired matches. <> Then it is understandable for the royal family of the Tang Dynasty who was very conscientious of its somewhat mixed bloodline to seek direct linkage to a historical Han figure. That figure happened to be Lao Tze. Taoism in turn became the national religion during the Tang Dynasty.
It all started in May 620AD (武德三年) when Ji Shan (吉善) of Jinzhou (晉州) walking along Sheep Horn Mountain (羊角山) met a very dignify-looking old gentleman on a white horse with red mane.
The elderly man said, “Go and inform the Tang Emperor that I am his ancestor. At the end of the year there will be peace and his descendants will be on the throne for a thousand years.”
Lee Yun was amazed by this and decided to build a temple where the alleged meeting took place. This was the first step in solidifying the link between the Tang Emperor and Lao Tze. Later a royal edict officially ranked Taoism ahead of all religions.
III. Hsun Tsu
Xunzi or Hsün-tzu (300?-235? bc), major figure in Chinese philosophy, considered with Confucius and Mencius as one of the great founders of Confucianism. Xunzi was born in the state of Zhao in present-day Shanxi province. He was a member of the famed philosophers' circle, the Chi-hsia group, in the state of Qi until slander forced him to move to the state of Chu, where he became a magistrate in 255 BC.
Xunzi was the first Confucian to produce a book instead of leaving sayings for later compilation. This book of 32 essays, known today as the Xunzi, brought a new intellectual rigor to Confucian debate. Directly contradicting Mencius, Xunzi declared that human nature is fundamentally bad and likely to create chaos unless restrained and modified by li, the patterns of ritual and custom that evolve from the rational faculty of humans. Culture thus holds society together and protects people from their own natures. The most cultivated individuals—the Confucian sages with their highly developed rational faculties—were therefore best adapted to govern, rather than hereditary rulers. The li of society includes a natural hierarchy assigning each member a place and duties.
Though a gifted controversialist, Xunzi deplored argument and advocated a sage-king to restore the pristine li and impose consensus. This authoritarian tendency brought him close to the school of Chinese philosophy called Legalism espoused by his two pupils, Han Fei and Li Si. Neo-Confucians of the 12th century ad rejected Xunzi and declared Mencius the second sage of Confucianism. Despite this criticism, Xunzi was instrumental in systematizing and perpetuating the thought of his predecessors.
IV. Han Fei Zi
Han Fei (280?-233? bc), also known as Han Fei-tzu (tzu is a Chinese suffix meaning “master”), early Chinese philosopher, considered the greatest exponent of the political theory of Legalism (see Chinese Philosophy: Legalism). Born into the aristocracy of the small kingdom of Han in central China, Han Fei grew up towards the end of the Period of the Warring States (403-221 bc), when all the states of Zhou-dynasty China (1045?-256 bc) were engaged in a struggle for political power. He studied under the Confucian philosopher Xunzi (see Confucianism), but turned away from established traditions to teach what he felt were more practical matters. He wrote down his views in essays that were later compiled in the book Han Feizi (Han Fei-tzu).
In his book, Han Fei diverged from the dominant philosophy of Confucianism by opposing traditional models of government and excessive book learning. He advocated a state, ruled by an enlightened ruler with absolute authority, in which law replaces morality. According to Han Fei, individual standards of morality (see Ethics) should be replaced by what the ruler wants (considered right) and what the ruler does not want (considered wrong).
Later, the leader of Han sent Han Fei to negotiate with the western state of Qin (Ch’in), where he was politely received by its ruler, the future First Emperor Shi Huangdi, who had read his book. However, Qin's chief minister Li Si, an occasional pupil of Han Fei, persuaded Shi Huangdi to have Han Fei executed by forcing him to drink poison. Following the principles of Han Fei's philosophy, Qin went on to dominate all other Chinese states and unify China, but the Qin dynasty's swift collapse in 209 bc effectively discredited the views of Legalism.
V. Sun Tzu - Art of War
The Art of War is an ancient Chinese military treatise that is attributed to Sun Tzu (also referred to as "Sunzi" and "Sun Wu"), a high ranking military general and strategist during the late Spring and Autumn period (some scholars believe that the Art of War was not completed until the subsequent Warring States period[1]). Composed of 13 chapters, each of which is devoted to one aspect of warfare, it is said to be the definitive work on military strategies and tactics of its time, and is still read for its military insights.
The Art of War is one of the oldest and most successful books on military strategy in the world. It has been the most famous and influential of China's Seven Military Classics: "for the last two thousand years it remained the most important military treatise in Asia, where even the common people knew it by name."[2] It has had an influence on Eastern military thinking, business tactics, and beyond.
Sun Tzu emphasized the importance of positioning in military strategy, and that the decision to position an army must be based on both objective conditions in the physical environment and the subjective beliefs of other, competitive actors in that environment. He thought that strategy was not planning in the sense of working through an established list, but rather that it requires quick and appropriate responses to changing conditions. Planning works in a controlled environment, but in a changing environment, competing plans collide, creating unexpected situations.
The book was first translated into the French language in 1772 by French Jesuit Jean Joseph Marie Amiot, and into English by British officer Everard Ferguson Calthrop in 1905. Leaders as diverse as Mao Zedong, General Vo Nguyen Giap, Baron Antoine-Henri Jomini, GeneralDouglas MacArthur, Napoleon, and leaders of Imperial Japan have drawn inspiration from the work. The Art of War has also been applied tobusiness and managerial strategies.
Imperial Japan have drawn inspiration from the work. The Art of War has also been applied tobusiness and managerial strategies.
- Laying Plans/The Calculations explores the five fundamental factors (the Way, seasons, terrain, leadership, and management) and seven elements that determine the outcomes of military engagements. By thinking, assessing and comparing these points, a commander can calculate his chances of victory. Habitual deviation from these calculations will ensure failure via improper action. The text stresses that war is a very grave matter for the state, and must not be commenced without due consideration.
- Waging War/The Challenge explains how to understand the economy of warfare, and how success requires winning decisive engagements quickly. This section advises that successful military campaigns require limiting the cost of competition and conflict.
- Attack by Stratagem/The Plan of Attack defines the source of strength as unity, not size, and discusses the five factors that are needed to succeed in any war. In order of importance, these critical factors are: Attack, Strategy, Alliances, Army, and Cities.
- Tactical Dispositions/Positioning explains the importance of defending existing positions until a commander is capable of advancing from those positions in safety. It teaches commanders the importance of recognizing strategic opportunities, and teaches not to create opportunities for the enemy.
- Energy/Directing explains the use of creativity and timing in building an army's momentum.
- Weak Points & Strong/Illusion and Reality explains how an army's opportunities come from the openings in the environment caused by the relative weakness of the enemy in a given area.
- Maneuvering/Engaging The Force explains the dangers of direct conflict and how to win those confrontations when they are forced upon the commander.
- Variation in Tactics/The Nine Variations focuses on the need for flexibility in an army's responses. It explains how to respond to shifting circumstances successfully.
- The Army on the March/Moving The Force describes the different situations in which an army finds itself as it moves through new enemy territories, and how to respond to these situations. Much of this section focuses on evaluating the intentions of others.
- Terrain/Situational Positioning looks at the three general areas of resistance (distance, dangers, and barriers) and the six types of ground positions that arise from them. Each of these six field positions offer certain advantages and disadvantages.
- The Nine Situations/Nine Terrains describes the nine common situations (or stages) in a campaign, from scattering to deadly, and the specific focus that a commander will need in order to successfully navigate them.
- The Attack by Fire/Fiery Attack explains the general use of weapons and the specific use of the environment as a weapon. This section examines the five targets for attack, the five types of environmental attack, and the appropriate responses to such attacks.
- The Use of Spies/The Use of Intelligence focuses on the importance of developing good information sources, and specifies the five types of intelligence sources and how to best manage each of them.
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