THIS IS MY STORY

DIRECTED by
Niel Jonas Mojado Bogador

THE SUMMARY OF ROMEO AND JULIET

The play begins with a large fight between the Capulets and the Montagues, two prestigious families in Verona, Italy. These families have been fighting for quite some time, and the Prince declares that their next public brawl will be punished by death. When the fight is over, Romeo’s cousin Benvolio tries to cheer him of his melancholy. Romeo reveals that he is in love with a woman named Rosaline, but she has chosen to live a life of chastity. Romeo and Benvolio are accidentally invited to their enemy’s party; Benvolio convinces Romeo to go.

At the party, Romeo locks eyes with a young woman named Juliet. They instantly fall in love, but they do not realize that their families are mortal enemies. When they realize each other’s identities, they are devastated, but they cannot help the way that they feel. Romeo sneaks into Juliet’s yard after the party and proclaims his love for her. She returns his sentiments and the two decide to marry. The next day, Romeo and Juliet are married by Friar Lawrence; an event witnessed by Juliet’s Nurse and Romeo’s loyal servant, Balthasar. They plan to meet in Juliet’s chambers that night.

Romeo visits his best friend Mercutio and his cousin Benvolio but his good mood is curtailed. Juliet’s cousin, Tybalt, starts a verbal quarrel with Romeo, which soon turns into a duel with Mercutio. Romeo tries to stop the fight but it is too late: Tybalt kills Mercutio. Romeo, enraged, retaliates by killing Tybalt. Once Romeo realizes the consequences of his actions, he hides at Friar Lawrence’s cell.

Friar Lawrence informs Romeo that he has been banished from Verona and will be killed if he stays. The Friar suggests Romeo spend the night with Juliet, then leave for Mantua in the morning. He tells Romeo that he will attempt to settle the Capulet and Montague dispute so Romeo can later return to a united family. Romeo takes his advice, spending one night with Juliet before fleeing Verona.

Juliet’s mother, completely unaware of her daughter's secret marriage to Romeo, informs Juliet that she will marry a man named Paris in a few days. Juliet, outraged, refuses to comply. Her parents tell her that she must marry Paris and the Nurse agrees with them. Juliet asks Friar Lawrence for advice, insisting she would rather die than marry Paris. Fr. Lawrence gives Juliet a potion which will make her appear dead and tells her to take it the night before the wedding. He promises to send word to Romeo - intending the two lovers be reunited in the Capulet vault.

Juliet drinks the potion and everybody assumes that she is dead — including Balthasar, who immediately tells Romeo. Friar Lawrence’s letter fails to reach Romeo, so he assumes that his wife is dead. He rushes to Juliet’s tomb and, in deep grief, drinks a vial of poison. Moments later, Juliet wakes to find Romeo dead and kills herself due to grief. Once the families discover what happened, they finally end their bitter feud. Thus the youngsters' deaths bring the families together. Romeo And Juliet is a true tragedy in the literary sense because the families gather sufficient self-knowledge to correct their behaviour but not until it is too late to save the situation.

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Importance of Literature

"Literature adds to reality, it does not simply describe it. It enriches the necessary competencies that daily life requires and provides; and in this respect, it irrigates the deserts that our lives have already become." - C.S Lewis, a British scholar and novelist.

This adage is perhaps the most appropriate description of the importance of literature in our lives. Literature reminds us of stories, epics, sacred scriptures and classical works of the ancient and modern times. Literature is defined as the body of written works of a language, period or culture, produced by scholars and researchers, specialized in a given field. Why is literature important? Let us see.

Importance of Literature

As stated in the quotation by C.S. Lewis, literature not only describes reality but also adds to it. Yes, literature is not merely a depiction of reality; it is rather a value-addition. Literary works are portrayals of the thinking patterns and social norms prevalent in society. They are a depiction of the different facets of common man's life. Classical literary works serve as a food for thought and a tonic for imagination and creativity. Exposing an individual to good literary works, is equivalent to providing him/her with the finest of educational opportunities. On the other hand, the lack of exposure to classic literary works is equal to depriving an individual from an opportunity to grow as an individual.

Prose, poetry, drama, essays, fiction, literary works based on philosophy, art, history, religion, and culture and also scientific and legal writings are grouped under the category of literature. Creative nonfiction of the ancient times and literary journalism also fall under literature. Certain extremely technical writings such as those on logistics and mathematics are also believed to be a part of literature.

Some of the great literary works like the Bible and Indian epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata, among others, provide society with the guiding principles of life. Ancient poetic works by poets like Homer, Plato, Sappho, Horace and Virgil, Shakespeare's sonnets and notable poetry by W.B. Yeats, John Keats, Wordsworth, Tennyson and William Blake are timeless. The Lord of the Rings, The Godfather, A Tale of Two Cities, James Bond series are some of the best-selling books of all times. The Adventures of Pinocchio, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Winnie-the-Pooh were some of the greatest works in children's literature. The relatively recent Harry Potter series made record sales across the globe and carved a niche for J.K. Rowling. However, a discussion about children's authors would be incomplete without the mention of all-time popular authors like Aesop, Enid Blyton, Roald Dahl and Mark Twain.

It is through reading such great literary and poetic works, that one understands life. They help a person take a closer look at the different facets of life. In many ways, it can change one's perspective towards life. Lives of brilliant achievers and individuals who have made a valuable contribution to society, are sketched in their biographies. These works give the readers an insight into the lives of these eminent people, while also serving as a bible of ideals.

Literature serves as an enormous information base. Research works by famous inventors and literary works by notable scientists often narrate stories of their groundbreaking discoveries and inferences. Ongoing developments in the fields of science and technology are documented so that the world can know about them. Several ancient scriptures relating stories of human evolution and narratives of human life in the those times, have been of tremendous help to mankind. Thus, literature has always served as an authentic source of information from all around the world.

True, languages are the building blocks of literature. But the study of literature cannot be restricted to only studying languages. In fact, literature cannot be confined to an educational curriculum. A degree in language and literature is perhaps unable to provide one, with everything that literature can offer.

Literature, is definitely, much more than its literary meaning, which defines it as 'an acquaintance to letters'. It, in fact, lays the foundation of an enriched life; it adds 'life' to 'living'.

By Manali Oak

Sumerian Literature

Sumerian Literature, literature written in Sumerian in the ancient Mesopotamian kingdom of Sumer. It is the oldest literature in history. Sumerian inscriptions, in cuneiform, have been found on tens of thousands of pieces of pottery, on clay cylinder seals, and on clay tablets. More than 90 percent of these inscriptions are administrative, economic, and legal documents, including inventories, promissory notes, receipts, deeds of sale, marriage contracts, wills, and court decisions. The inscriptions make reference to hundreds of names of persons, deities, places, and products, and constitute the most important source material for the study of Sumerian society and economy. Many of the documents were dated by the scribes in relation to significant events and are therefore invaluable as historical sources.

Nearly 1000 inscriptions have been found on objects such as statues, stelae, vases, bricks, door sockets, and foundation deposits. Written in lofty prose style, the inscriptions contain much information about Sumerian history and religion.

More than 5000 tablets and fragments are inscribed with Sumerian literary and religious works. These works, including myths and epic tales, hymns and lamentations, proverbs, and essays, number in the hundreds. The various compositions range in length from hymns of fewer than 50 lines to myths of nearly 1000 lines. Except for the proverbs and some of the essays, all Sumerian literary and religious works are written in poetic form. Most of the literary tablets, which are of great value for the study of Sumerian intellectual development, date from the 18th century bc, but the majority of the inscribed works were composed centuries earlier. Although most of these literary tablets were excavated toward the beginning of the 20th century, it was not until the 1940s that a systematic and fruitful study of their contents began.

Babylonian Literature

Assyro-Babylonian Literature, texts written in the Assyro-Babylonian language between the 3rd millennium bc and roughly the time of Jesus Christ. Most Assyro-Babylonian cuneiform tablets deal with science, economics, administrative policies (in the form of letters), and law, including one of the greatest of all legal documents, the Code of Hammurabi (see Hammurabi, Code of). A wide variety of purely literary genres, however, also exists. Among them are epics and myths; historical chronicles and royal annals; historical romances in poetic form; hymns and prayers, incantations and rituals, and texts dealing with magic and divination; collections of proverbs and precepts; disputations such as fanciful literary debates between animals, trees, or the like; and remarkable poetic narratives dealing with the problem of human misery.

Most of this body of literature is in the Babylonian dialect of the southern part of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Those texts written in the Assyrian dialect of the north consist of historical inscriptions, business documents, oracles and rituals, and official letters; existing literary texts in Assyrian are copies or adaptations of Babylonian originals. The preservation of Assyro-Babylonian literature is, in fact, due to Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, who sent scholars to Babylonia to copy old Assyro-Babylonian cuneiform tablets; thousands of these transcriptions (many now in the British Museum in London) were collected in his library at Nineveh.

The longest Babylonian epic poems are the Creation Epic and the Gilgamesh Epic. The former, consisting of seven tablets, deals with the struggle between cosmic order and primeval chaos. The secular Gilgamesh Epic, written about 2000 bc on 12 cuneiform tablets, concerns the hero's fruitless search for immortality. Masterfully woven together from an older series of separate Sumerian tales, this epic poem had great popular appeal in antiquity. It is of interest to modern biblical scholars because of its reference to a Noah-like character who survived a great flood. See Deluge.

The Epic of Zû tells of the theft of the Tablets of Destiny from the gods by the evil bird Zû and of their recovery by the warrior god Ninurta. The search for the “plant of birth” by the shepherd Etana, who ultimately founded the first dynasty after the deluge, is related in the Epic of Etana. Among other Babylonian epics and myths are The Descent of Ishtar to the Nether World; Atrahasis, which deals with human sin and its punishment through plagues and the deluge; and Nergal and Ereshkigal, concerning the marriage of the divinities who ruled the netherworld.

Other important works are The Babylonian Theodicy, a poetic dialogue about a Job-like “righteous sufferer”; a satirical dialogue, The Master and His Obliging Servant; and a recently discovered folktale, The Poor Man of Nippur, which seems to be the ancestor of one of the stories in the Arabian Nights.

Among significant historical romances in poetic form are The Cuthaean Legend, concerning the defeat of King Naram-Sin (reigned about 2255-2218 bc) of Akkad; The King of Battle, dealing with a military expedition to Anatolia led by Sargon I (reigned about 2335-2279 bc) of Akkad; and The Epic of Tukulti-Ninurta, describing the defeat of the Babylonians by the Assyrians.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Excerpt of Gilgamesh

First written down around 2000 BCE, the story of Gilgamesh is one of the oldest surviving works of world
literature. Based on an actual historical figure, King Gilgamesh of Uruk (reigned c. 2700 BCE), it recounts
Gilgamesh’s travels, adventures, and his search for immortality. In the process, it provides evidence of ancient
Mesopotamian ideas about death, the place of humanity in the universe, and societal organization. The work
survives in multiple copies, and it seems to have been a compilation of several hero narratives associated with
Gilgamesh, his rival-turned-friend Enkidu, and the gods and men they encountered throughout their travels.
This selection draws on multiple sections of the “Epic”, and it gives a flavor of the whole.

      It could be argued that any story more than four thousand years old deserves the close attention of modern students of literature. The appeal of this epic, however, goes far beyond its literary antiquity. Gilgamesh abounds with drama, conflict, and charismatic characters, and its topics are many and varied. These include such enduring human concerns as the fear of death, the need for true friendship, the importance of achieving great deeds and displaying virtuous traits (such as courage, loyalty, and leadership) and—perhaps most vital of all—the glory and wisdom to be found in the search for truth. On a basic human level, the narrative reveals many ways in which these ancient peoples differed from modern humans, but also points to surprising similarities. Some scholars may quarrel with Bryson's claims that this is 'man's first story,' but there can be no question that Gilgamesh is the world's first genuine epic hero.

A number of later epic and legendary heroes—including Odysseus, Aeneas, and Beowulf—resemble Gilgamesh, and it is thought that some of them were at least partly based on his character. Certain biblical narratives, most notably the story of Noah and the Flood, may also have been based on episodes from this epic. Scholars are not in total agreement, but there is a strong likelihood that the composers of the Old Testament were familiar either with Gilgamesh or its sources, the oldest of which probably existed in an oral tradition.

Bryson's version relates the story in a straightforward and clear manner. In her 'Explanation' at the close of the text, she writes that she has not tried to retranslate the work, which has been rendered into English by several scholars, nor to compile a series of readings of the original. Rather, she has retold the story in an accessible fashion so that today's readers can appreciate it. Several confusing and inconsistent elements of the original have simply been omitted. And in a few passages, a clarifying transition has been provided. The result is a coherent narrative that faithfully communicates the tone of the story.

Of further interest in this version are the realistic, colorful illustrations—seventy-five of them—that accompany the text. Many are based on archeological evidence and give a sense of the folkways of the people of that era and an impression of the appearances of their gods.

SETTING

The first evidence that the epic of Gilgamesh existed came to light when English archeologists in the nineteenth century discovered an archive of ancient clay tablets in the Middle East. In subsequent years, more tablets were found at other archeological sites in the region. The inscriptions on these tablets were written in cuneiform, an early form of writing that inscribed wedge-shaped characters into soft clay. The clay was often baked into tablets, just like pottery, to make a permanent record, and many of these have survived for thousands of years.

Cuneiform writing was used by the ancient Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian peoples, and their strange and difficult languages resisted translation for many years. What finally emerged after years of diligent research was the fragmentary narrative of Gilgamesh, a legendary king of the great city of Uruk, which is mentioned in the Bible as Erech. Archeologists have located the site of this city near the present-day village of Warka in southern Iraq. The city of Uruk stood at the center of the kingdom of Sumer, which flourished around 3000 b.c. in the area of southern Mesopotamia.

The epic's geographic setting is real, and some of the characters may also have been real. Gilgamesh himself is probably based on a historical figure, whose life was later embellished with myth and legend. The time of the story is impossible to fix exactly, since there are so many versions and translations of the various texts. Bryson's interpretation is simply placed in and around Uruk on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in very ancient times.

Some locations mentioned in the text, while probably based on places in the actual world, are presented as the Mesopotamian and Sumerian imagination pictured them. Many can now be tentatively identified with real places. For example, the 'Bitter River' which Gilgamesh crosses late in the narrative is probably the Persian Gulf.

THEMES AND CHARACTERS

As is usual of epics, there are three types of characters in Gilgamesh—the human, the divine, and those who partake in the natures of both. The hero Gilgamesh is two-thirds god and one-third man, a fact that has special significance during his final quest.

The main 'human' characters are Ninsun, a skilled interpreter of dreams; Sabitu, the sensible wine maiden; Utnapishtim, who escapes the destruction of a great flood like the biblical Noah; Harim, the temple priestess; and Enkidu, the friend and companion of Gilgamesh. Enkidu was 'created' out of clay by one of the gods and is, therefore, reminiscent of the biblical Adam.

Of greater interest to many readers are the gods and goddesses, who are led by Anu, the Lord of the Skies. The god Ea rules the 'deep waters,' and Enlil is ruler over the earth. In the plot of the story, the two most active deities are the benevolent Shamash, god of the sun, and Ishtar, goddess of love. Ishtar is unreliable and often painfully willful and eccentric. These traits bring about the death of Gilgamesh's companion, Enkidu.

The lesser gods are still impressive—the fearsome Anunnaki, the demons of the Underworld with their 'torches of lightning'; Aruru, who creates Enkidu simply by scooping up a handful of clay and shaping it into the desired form; and the quasi-divine monster Humbaba, thought by some scholars to be a precursor of the fire-breathing dragons found in many tales and legends. Humbaba, who has enormous strength, is the divinely appointed guardian of the cedar forests. The episode in which Gilgamesh and Enkidu vanquish Humbaba contains some of the liveliest action in the epic.

Bryson has helpfully divided the text into two parts, aptly titled 'The Temper of the Gods' and 'The Wanderings of Gilgamesh.' Each of these two sections is further divided into episodes, and the titles of these short chapters suggest the movement of the story. Although the narrative is episodic, the incidents are connected by their focus on the hero and by the story's underlying themes.

Several themes are typical of ancient tales in general and of epics in particular. Perhaps the most popular of these is the quest motif. Human life seems to have appeared to the ancients as a never-ending quest for some valued treasure, whether material or symbolic. From the very start, where the elders of the city undertake a kind of verbal quest to persuade the gods to create a mighty foe to oppose their overactive king, to Gilgamesh's final journey to discover the secret of eternal life, each incident can be interpreted as a search for an important element of truth or a precious goal.

A second theme appears at the heart of the chapter entitled 'The Terrible Battle between Gilgamesh and Enkidu.' During this violent combat, much is made of points of honor involving non-interference and the refusal to take unfair advantage of an opponent. For example, the elders order the citizens of Uruk not to intercede even when Gilgamesh appears to be losing. Because Enkidu is unarmed, Gilgamesh refuses to resort to his axe or spear, which would clinch the victory but cost him honor. Because he has been such a worthy and honorable opponent, the struggle ends with Enkidu embracing Gilgamesh as a new-found comrade, praising him instead of killing him. Honor and 'fairness' are essential traits for a worthy hero.

Other themes recur forcefully, such as the need for sleep. During Gilgamesh's quest for eternal life, which is a characteristic only of divinities, his 'ancestor' Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that the gods do not need sleep. Gilgamesh struggles to remain awake, but soon falls into a sound slumber. This causes Utnapishtim to remark that unless Gilgamesh rids himself of this weakness he will not be able to attain eternal life.

Closely related to the need for sleep are repeated references to dreams and their significance. The principal activity of Ninsun is interpreting dreams, although Gilgamesh and Enkidu both practice the art when the need arises. For example, when they approach the domain of Humbaba, Gilgamesh proposes that they sleep, dream, and then try to understand the meaning of their dreams. Clearly, as is true of many other societies, the Mesopotamians took dreams very seriously and believed that they conveyed significant information about the future and the plans of the gods.

Readers may more readily grasp the epic's emphasis on material objects and physical achievements. This stress emerges first in the tendency towards exaggeration. Gilgamesh and Enkidu are presented as about twelve feet tall, and their deeds require superhuman abilities. Gilgamesh earns the reputation of being a great builder by erecting the astoundingly high walls of Uruk, and he takes considerable pride in his skills. At the end of the story after he has failed in his quest, he returns to be comforted by the magnificence of the city he has built.

At different points in the story, both Ninsun and Gilgamesh accuse Shamash of instilling the hero with lofty and dangerous ambitions that lead to perilous exploits. This indicates a recurring literary theme that emerges in later epics, such as Homer's Odyssey and Vergil's Aeneid. How much free will can be attributed to even the greatest of heroes as opposed to some degree of control by fate, destiny, or the gods?

If one were to summarize the central theme of this epic, it might be that life is given meaning by the pursuit of worthy, honorable, and virtuous activities, not through unrealistic goals nor vain glory. This is movingly depicted at the epic's climax when Gilgamesh renounces his worldly power and possessions and joins Enkidu in death.

LITERARY QUALITIES

While much of the appeal of the story derives from the essential qualities of the original narrative, Bryson's skillful use of language and the coherence of her characters add considerably to the reader's enjoyment. Because of the episodic structure of the narrative, Bryson must quickly and concisely reveal the nature of her characters. She accomplishes this primarily through believable dialogue. For example, when Enkidu laments his loss of natural purity after the wild animals turn away from him, the reader is sympathetic with the pain he expresses. Both Enkidu and Gilgamesh are unquestionably brave. Yet both have moments of fear and self-doubt, making them seem well-rounded and human.

Through focused description, Bryson provides added touches of realism to the people and events. When Ninsun prays to Shamash for help, she first ascends to the roof so that her words can more easily reach the heavens. After her opening appeal, she waits a few moments to give the phrases time to rise to the god's ears. This passage not only suggests a sensible reverence for the deity but also enforces the presence of Nunsun as an experienced and devout priestess. Pertinent figures of speech also enliven the story, as when Humbaba's enormous moving arms are compared to the masts of a ship.

Bryson's text supplies a useful introduction of the gods and a helpful map of the territory of the story. Some of the places, such as the city of Uruk, are real. Other places are imaginary, such as the tunnel under the earth that connects night and day; or Dilmun, the Mesopotamian equivalent of the Garden of Eden. Authentic cuneiform quotations are sprinkled throughout the pages of the book, giving a sense of the ancient language in which the original was written.

Bryson has blended the very old and complicated set of fragments of an absorbing myth in her retelling so that modern readers may not only enjoy it but also ponder its mysteries. One may never know why Gilgamesh does not immediately eat the magic plant of eternal life when he has gotten it from the depths of the Bitter River—but, one might surmise that he wishes to take most of it home to help his people. Such open-ended matters remain a subject for lively speculation.

SOCIAL SENSITIVITY

Each of the principal gods of Gilgamesh represents an aspect or force of nature, and such pantheism is not unusual in old myths. Although a modern reader might be tempted to label the religion of the Mesopotamians as mere 'superstition,' the text repeatedly demonstrates that these people took their deities seriously. The reader must accept the fact that the persons in the tale have a close relationship with their gods, which are assigned human traits as well as supernatural powers. What is striking is the erratic behavior of the deities. Even Anu, the chief of the gods, argues in an almost perverse human manner with the elders when they propose the creation of Enkidu. He likes Gilgamesh and enjoys the high walls that he has built simply because he likes to sit on them and watch the activities of the humans in the city.

An unsettling aspect of religion in the epic is its grim vision of the afterlife. The souls of the dead descend to the Under-world, where they are judged and then treated according to their deeds. The picture of Enkidu's body turning into moss, weeds, and roots is chilling. On his deathbed, Enkidu dreams of the awful Zu, a great bird that will peck at him and tear his body apart. In an earlier passage, Ishtar frightens the other gods by threatening to open the gates of the Underworld. Once released, the dead would fill the earth, eat all the food, and cause a great famine. The intimidation works well. The gods turn away in fear and allow Ishtar to form the Bull of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh and Enkidu.

In his report to Gilgamesh on the conditions of the dead, Enkidu says that they are rewarded not on the basis of their temporal position on earth (kings or servants) but on the basis of the number of sons they have produced. The implied prejudice against the female gender was an element of many ancient societies and should be viewed in cultural context.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Literature of Egypt and "The Book of the Dead"

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INTRODUCTION

Egyptian Literature, literature of ancient Egypt, recorded in inscriptions or written on papyrus. Ancient Egyptian literature is characterized by a wide diversity of types and subject matter. It dates from the Old Kingdom (about 2575-2134 bc) into the Greco-Roman period (after 332 bc), and the works employ such literary devices as simile, metaphor, alliteration, and punning. For information on later Egyptian literature, see Arabic Literature.

RANGE OF LITERARY FORMS

The religious literature of ancient Egypt includes hymns to the gods, mythological and magical texts, and an extensive collection of mortuary texts. The range of secular literature includes stories; instructive literature, known as “wisdom texts”; poems; love songs; biographical and historical texts; and scientific treatises, including mathematical and medical texts. Although they are not strictly considered literature, the many legal, administrative, and economic texts and private documents such as letters are also notable. The individual authors of several compositions dating from the Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 bc) were revered in later periods. They came from the educated class of priests and upper-level government officials, and their audience was largely educated people like themselves. Many literary compositions of the Middle Kingdom were composed as political propaganda, to teach students, who learned to read and write by copying them on tablets and ostraca (fragments of broken pottery), to be loyal to the ruling dynasty. Many of these same wisdom texts were still copied by schoolchildren of the New Kingdom (1550-1070 bc) more than 500 years later, along with more contemporary texts designed to undermine the glamour of the new military profession. Some of the stories include elements of mythology (see Egyptian Mythology) and may owe much to an oral storytelling tradition.

OLD KINGDOM

The oldest literature preserved, the Pyramid Texts, are mortuary texts carved inside the pyramids of kings and queens of the later part of the Old Kingdom. They were designed to ensure the dead ruler's rightful place in the afterlife. These texts incorporate mythology, magical spells, hymns to the gods, and daily offering rituals. Many autobiographical inscriptions from private tombs recount the deceased's participation in historical events. Although no stories or wisdom texts are preserved from the Old Kingdom, some Middle Kingdom manuscripts may be copies of Old Kingdom originals—an example, “The Instruction of the Vizier Ptahhotep,” which is composed of maxims that illustrate basic virtues (such as moderation, truthfulness, and kindness) governing human relations and that describe the ideal person as a just administrator.

FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

Following the decline of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts were appropriated by private individuals. Supplemented with new incantations, these texts were painted on coffins, from which the name Coffin Texts is derived. Private individuals also continued to have their tombs inscribed with autobiographical texts, which often recounted their exploits during this time of political unrest. To this First Intermediate period (about 2134-2040 bc) are attributed various laments over the chaotic state of affairs. One of these, “The Dialogue of a Man with his Ba” (soul), is a debate on suicide; another, the earliest example of the songs sung by harpists at funerary banquets, advises “Eat, drink, and be merry, before it's too late!”

MIDDLE KINGDOM

In addition to Coffin Texts, Middle Kingdom religious literature comprises numerous hymns to the king and various deities—including a long hymn to the Nile River—and ritual texts. Private autobiographies containing historical information continued to be inscribed, and rulers began setting up stelae (stone slabs) on which their important deeds were recorded. From both the First Intermediate period and the Middle Kingdom come instructional texts, each written in the name of a reigning king telling his son and successor how various specific historic events influenced the kingship and how the son should profit by the father's mistakes. “The Satire on Trades” stresses the bad aspects of all possible occupations in contrast to the easy life of the scribe. The stories composed during the Middle Kingdom include “The Story of Sinuhe,” the story of a palace official who flees to Syria at the death of King Amenemhet I and becomes a rich and important man there; “The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant,” about a man who makes such eloquent pleas for the return of his stolen donkeys that he is kept in protective custody for some time so that the official in charge can record his orations for the king's enjoyment; “The Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor,” which recounts a fabulous encounter with a giant snake on a lush island; and “The Story of King Khufu and the Magicians.” The earliest preserved medical and mathematical papyri also date from this period.

Abū Simbel, 1250 BC

New Kingdom mortuary texts, especially one called the Book of the Dead, were written on papyrus for inclusion in tombs. The most famous hymns from the period include those from the reign of Akhenaton that were dedicated to the sun god as sole deity. King Kamose, at the end of the Second Intermediate period (1640-1550 bc), recorded the early stages of driving the Hyksos out of Egypt in the mid-1500s bc. After the early New Kingdom, the number of such royal historical inscriptions increased greatly, while private autobiographical texts gave way to religious texts. Thutmose III recorded his various wars in Syria both on a freestanding stela (called the Poetical Stela) and on the walls of the temple at Al Karnak. Both records describe how the king calls in his advisers and apprises them of the difficulty of their situation. When he is advised to try the easy solution, he tells them that he is not afraid and will dare the more dangerous route, and he succeeds. Late New Kingdom rulers, especially Ramses II and Ramses III, also left extensive records of their military exploits. Both poetic accounts and chronicles of the deeds of Ramses II at the Battle of Kadesh against the Hittites have been preserved. The instructive texts, now directed at lower ranks in the bureaucracy, were no longer based on the assumption that correct thinking and just action automatically lead to wordly success. Instead, they counsel contemplation and endurance. The many stories that involve mythological characters include “The Contendings of Horus and Seth”; “The Destruction of Mankind,” in which human beings are spared from annihilation by having the goddess Hathor drink blood-colored beer; and “The Tale of the Two Brothers,” a story of a good younger brother betrayed by his suspicious elder brother. “The Report of Wenamun” recounts the tribulations of an envoy sent to purchase wood in Byblos. Several collections of love poems exist from this period as well.

LATE PERIOD

From the subsequent centuries into the Greco-Roman period (after 332 bc), examples from the full range of Egyptian literary forms are known. These include new religious compositions, private and royal historical records, instructions, stories, and scientific treatises such as medical, mathematical, and astronomical papyri. “The Instructions of Onchsheshongy,” a collection of largely pragmatic maxims, many of which sound like proverbs, and “The Instructions of Papyrus Insinger,” which portrays the wise person as being moral and pious, contrast sharply with the earlier expressions of belief in rewards in life on earth. Stories were written in this period about the adventures of various magicians, as was a cycle recounting the exploits of a legendary king, Petubastis. One mythological tale consists of a series of animal fables. Contacts with contemporary Greek literature are evident both in the epic cycle and the fables, in Egyptian texts (including prophetic literature) translated into Greek, and in a range of magical texts known in both Greek and Egyptian.

“The Book of the Dead”

Book of the Dead, name generally given to a large collection of funerary texts of various dates, containing magical formulas, hymns, and prayers believed by the ancient Egyptians to guide and protect the soul (Ka) in its journey into the region of the dead (Amenti). Egyptians believed that the knowledge of these texts enabled the soul to ward off demons attempting to impede its progress, and to pass the tests set by the 42 judges in the hall of Osiris, god of the underworld. These texts also indicated that happiness in the afterlife was dependent on the deceased's having led a virtuous life on earth. The earliest religious (funerary) texts known were found cut in hieroglyphs on the walls inside the pyramids of the kings of the 5th and 6th Dynasties of the Old Kingdom; these became known as the Pyramid Texts. A famous example is found in the pyramid of Unas (reigned about 2356-2323 bc), the last king of the 5th Dynasty. In the first Intermediate Period and in the Middle Kingdom private individuals had these texts painted on coffins, from which the alternate name Coffin Texts is derived. By the 18th Dynasty the texts were inscribed on papyri placed in the  mummy case; these papyri were frequently from 15 to 30 m (50 to 100 ft) long and illustrated in color.

This vast collection of mortuary texts has survived in three critical revisions, or recensions: the Heliopolitan Recension, edited by the priests of the College of Anu (Heliopolis), and containing texts in use between the 5th and the 12th Dynasties; the Theban Recension, used from the 18th to the 22nd Dynasties; and the Saite Recension, used from the 26th Dynasty, about 600 bc probably to the end of the Ptolemies, 31 bc. The title “Book of the Dead” is misleading; the texts do not form a single connected work and do not belong to one period. Egyptologists have usually given this title to the last two Recensions. Translations of some sections (chapters) were made under various titles; one celebrated English translation of the Book of the Dead was made by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge in 1895.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Literature of China and the Warning States Period

Chinese Literature, writings of the Chinese people, with a continuous history of more than 3,000 years. It is the literature of a large multicultural area that became an empire in the 3rd century bc. This empire lasted until 1911, when the Republic of China was formed. Most of the literature prior to the 20th century was written or collected by officials who were part of the imperial system or by men educated as a part of this system. Chinese literature therefore has many connections with the history of China and with the major philosophical and religious beliefs of the society.

Poetry and essays were the major forms of Chinese literature prior to the 20th century. Yet over the centuries the Chinese also developed traditions of fiction and drama. While Chinese literature has adopted many literary forms from its wide contact with other cultures, all forms of Chinese literature, in turn, have had a major influence on the writings of Korea, Japan, and neighboring countries of Central and Southeast Asia.


The Warning States Period

The period of the Warring States begins in 403 bc, at the decline of the Zhou dynasty. During this time the Chinese empire shrinks and warlords struggle to forge new regional governments, especially in north China. The period is marked by the spread of cities and a shift toward more direct and centralized rule in the areas still controlled by the Zhou. Changes in the government and the economy make the clan less important, and the three-generation family becomes the primary unit of Chinese society. The bureaucracy grows and gains greater control over the peasantry, who must pay taxes directly to the government. Law codes and theories of governance develop to levels of great sophistication and exercise a strong influence on later governments.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Philosophers of China:

I. Confucius

INTRODUCTION

Confucius (551 or 552-479 bc), Chinese philosopher and educator, one of the most important individuals in Chinese history, and one of the most influential figures in world history. His name in Chinese is Kongzi (also spelled K’ung-tzu).

Confucius Life

Much about the life of Confucius is uncertain. He was born in the state of Lu, in what is now Shandong (Shantung) province, during the second half of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty (1045?-256 bc). China was then divided into a number of states. Although these states were under the authority of a single Zhou king, they functioned quite independently and often engaged in disastrous wars.

Confucius’s father apparently died when Confucius was young. His death left the family in poverty, so that Confucius had to work at menial tasks as a youth to help support the family. Somehow, he managed to obtain an education. As an adult he impressed others with his learning and good character, so that he began to acquire students and disciples. Confucius’s experiences growing up may have contributed to his willingness to instruct any student, regardless of wealth or social class, and to judge others on their actual character, rather than on their social standing.

Confucius was eventually appointed magistrate of justice in Lu. He resigned, apparently in protest over government corruption. After his resignation Confucius spent the next few years traveling through various states in China, hoping to find a ruler who would put his philosophy into practice. During his travels he came close to starvation at one point and was almost murdered on another occasion. Failing to find the ruler he was looking for, Confucius returned to Lu. He was given only a minor position in government, but several of his disciples attained high office in Lu and elsewhere.

After his death Confucius’s disciples collected his sayings in a work now known as the Lunyu (Lun-yü, Analects), a book in 20 sections. Scholars generally agree that the last 5 sections were composed long after the time of Confucius’s immediate disciples. There is intense disagreement over how much of the first 15 sections can reliably be attributed to Confucius or his students.

Confucius's Teachings

Confucius shared a belief, common in his time, that China had in the past enjoyed almost utopian periods of peace and prosperity under the rule of “sage kings.” Confucius held that these wise kings possessed de (te), meaning “virtue” or a sort of charisma that comes from being a good person and that makes others want to follow one. Consequently, the sage kings were able to govern primarily through the power of setting a good ethical example, rather than through military force or criminal penalties.

According to Confucius a good person has ren (or jen), translated as “humaneness” or “benevolence,” which is the summation of all other virtues. For example, a person with ren will always do what is appropriate for his social role. This yi (i, or “righteousness”) involves being obedient to one’s ruler and one’s parents. Obedience is not blind, however. Confucius stresses that we must encourage our superiors to act ethically and resign our position if the ruler persists in unethical behavior. A ren person does what is right regardless of the danger to himself or herself and regardless of the hardship this requires. This person also is faithful in his words: honest, but not glib. Finally, all virtues have to be applied in a flexible manner that shows an appreciation of specific circumstances and the people in them.

Confucius discouraged his students from worrying about the afterlife. Instead, he encouraged them to live in harmony and to help other people through government service, teaching, or just being a good family member. Confucius thought that there was great joy to be found in everyday family life, participating in communal activities, enjoying music, and spending time with one’s friends.

Confucius stressed three institutions that both express and help cultivate the virtues: rituals, education, and the family. Rituals can include everything from funeral ceremonies to sacrifices to the spirits of ancestors to the proper way to dress, eat dinner, or treat a guest. Confucius believed that performing rituals with a spirit of reverence was not only a sign of virtue, but could also help cultivate the virtues in oneself. He thought that there was only one correct set of rituals: those handed down by the sage kings of the past. Failing to perform the correct rituals, or performing them without proper reverence, was both a cause and a symptom of bad character and social decay.

In educating his disciples Confucius stressed the Shijing (Shih ching, “Book of Songs”), an anthology of poems from a variety of sources that was already old and revered by his era. He encouraged his disciples to find metaphorical meanings with ethical significance in the poems. For example, a poem that describes a team of horses as “never deviating” from their path should be read as a metaphor for following the way of the sage kings. Confucius was a demanding teacher who expected his students to think carefully about what he taught them and to apply it in their own lives.

Confucius’s commitment to the family is revealed in a famous anecdote in which a ruler brags to Confucius about how someone in his state is so upright that he had turned in his own father for being a thief. Confucius suggests that he prefers the standard in his own state, where fathers and sons protect each other. One of the reasons that the family is so important, according to Confucius, is that we first learn to love and respect others in our family. This respect becomes the basis of virtue in later life.

 Confucian Tradition

Confucius described himself as a “transmitter and not an innovator,” because he believed that all his teachings were nothing more than the way of the ancient sages. However, he was more original than he realized, and he started one of the great intellectual traditions. This tradition is known in China as the rujia (ju-chia, or “School of the Scholars”) but is called Confucianism in the West. Confucians all try to follow the Way of Confucius as they understand it, but they often disagree sharply over what this way is. For example, Confucius said almost nothing about human nature, but his later followers debated whether human nature was good, as Mencius argued in the 4th century bc, or bad, as Xunzi (Hsün-tzu) claimed in the 3rd century bc.

Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi), a philosopher who lived in the 12th century ad, influenced thinking on Confucius for centuries. His views were adopted by the government and became the official state orthodoxy. Zhu Xi identified the Sishu (Four Books) as the core of Confucian philosophy. They comprised the Analects, the Mencius (Book of Mencius) by a follower of Confucius, the Greater Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean. The latter two presumably contain Confucius’s philosophical utterances, systematically arranged and with commentaries by his disciples. Zhu Xi’s commentaries on these works interpreted them in the light of one another and in terms of a philosophical system that was influenced by Zen Buddhism. This interpretation continues to influence how many people understand Confucius even today.

During China’s Cultural Revolution, from 1966 to 1976, Confucius was condemned by the Communist government as an element of China’s “feudal” past. However, economic and social changes in China since the 1980s have led to renewed interest in and respect for Confucius and Confucianism.

From a modern perspective, Confucius’s worldview has certain limitations. He was ignorant of cultural diversity; he accepted the sexism of his society; he shows no interest in natural science or technology; his political philosophy is undemocratic; and he gives insufficient stress to social change. However, Confucius will no doubt continue to inspire people across the world with his vision of social harmony, his insight into human virtue, and his techniques for cultivating ethical individuals.

II. Lao Tze 

Very little is known about Lao Tze. So little that even his surname is clouded in uncertainties. However, it is generally accepted that his name was Li Er (李耳) or Lao Tan (老聃), and was born in the state of Chu (楚國) during the Zhou dynasty (周朝), but the date of his birth is another mystery. Another accepted fact is that he was a keeper of archive (守藏室之史) in the Zhou court. It was while working in this capacity that Confucius (孔子) came and consulted him on matters of ceremonies and rites. Based upon this encounter it is assumed that he was older than Confucius.

It is unclear when he left this post. Legend has it that after leaving he decided to travel westward riding an oxen. At this time a purple cloud started to hover over him. Thus this journey is generally referred to as the Purple Cloud from the East (紫氣東來). One day he came to China’s westmost outpost (函谷關). The guardian of this outpost had heard of Lao Tze, his learning and his westward journey. He specially ordered his underlings to keep their eyes open for Lao Tze and when spotted should reported to him immediately. Upon meeting Lao Tze, he accorded Lao Tze the respects of a student to a teacher and asked Lao Tze to leave some of his wisdom in the form of writing behind. At this point Lao Tze wrote a 5,000 word essay titled Tao Te Ching (道德經). After he finished the essay, Lao Tze continued his westward journey and not to be heard from again.
Here is a brief listing of some of the ideas and concepts in the Tao Te Ching:

• Tao (道) is the invisible, intangible, and indescribable force which created the universe.
• Ideas and matters exist in pairs and are relative in that the pairs are always opposite yet depending on the other for its own existence. An example is good and evil. We know good when we encounter it only because we have known or encountered evil.
• Strength of the weak or soft is greater than the forceful or hard because the hard will break while the soft will bend and rebound.
• Advocated a return to the simple life of bygone days when people were self-sufficient and uneducated.
• For government he advocated sparsely populated small states where people have very little contact with each other.
• Most important of all is the concept which can loosely translated as let it be (無為).

The philosophy as outlined in Tao Te Ching (道德經) became popular during the early part of the Han Dynasty (漢朝). It is credited with calming the country and settling the population after the turmoil of the Warring States (戰國), the harsh Qin Dynasty (秦朝) and the ensuing civil war (楚漢相爭). From this base Wu Emperor (漢武帝) was able to launch his successful campaigns of driving the Northern nomads, Xiongnus (匈奴), far into the desert.
Hundreds of years later, the Taoists (道教) while battling Buddhism (佛教) for followers adapted Tao Te Ching as their religion’s dogma. In turn they honoured Lao Tze as the founder of their religion. However, honours didn’t really started to pour in until the Tang Dynasty (唐朝).
Keep in mind that since the latter part of the Han Dynasty, bloodline and ranked clans (門第望族) were of utmost important. At one point clan membership was the only requirement for high ranking positions in government (上品無寒門，下品無望族). Capability and learning played no part whatsoever. Yes, this is a caste system. Its meridian was during the North-south period (南北朝). The two most powerful clans were Wang (王) and Xie (謝). Stories had it that during the early Tang dynasty the emperor had trouble finding a spouse for one his daughters as the royal family was ranked six on list of desired matches. <> Then it is understandable for the royal family of the Tang Dynasty who was very conscientious of its somewhat mixed bloodline to seek direct linkage to a historical Han figure. That figure happened to be Lao Tze. Taoism in turn became the national religion during the Tang Dynasty.
It all started in May 620AD (武德三年) when Ji Shan (吉善) of Jinzhou (晉州) walking along Sheep Horn Mountain (羊角山) met a very dignify-looking old gentleman on a white horse with red mane.
The elderly man said, “Go and inform the Tang Emperor that I am his ancestor. At the end of the year there will be peace and his descendants will be on the throne for a thousand years.”
Lee Yun was amazed by this and decided to build a temple where the alleged meeting took place. This was the first step in solidifying the link between the Tang Emperor and Lao Tze. Later a royal edict officially ranked Taoism ahead of all religions.

III. Hsun Tsu

Xunzi or Hsün-tzu (300?-235? bc), major figure in Chinese philosophy, considered with Confucius and Mencius as one of the great founders of Confucianism. Xunzi was born in the state of Zhao in present-day Shanxi province. He was a member of the famed philosophers' circle, the Chi-hsia group, in the state of Qi until slander forced him to move to the state of Chu, where he became a magistrate in 255 BC.

Xunzi was the first Confucian to produce a book instead of leaving sayings for later compilation. This book of 32 essays, known today as the Xunzi, brought a new intellectual rigor to Confucian debate. Directly contradicting Mencius, Xunzi declared that human nature is fundamentally bad and likely to create chaos unless restrained and modified by li, the patterns of ritual and custom that evolve from the rational faculty of humans. Culture thus holds society together and protects people from their own natures. The most cultivated individuals—the Confucian sages with their highly developed rational faculties—were therefore best adapted to govern, rather than hereditary rulers. The li of society includes a natural hierarchy assigning each member a place and duties.

Though a gifted controversialist, Xunzi deplored argument and advocated a sage-king to restore the pristine li and impose consensus. This authoritarian tendency brought him close to the school of Chinese philosophy called Legalism espoused by his two pupils, Han Fei and Li Si. Neo-Confucians of the 12th century ad rejected Xunzi and declared Mencius the second sage of Confucianism. Despite this criticism, Xunzi was instrumental in systematizing and perpetuating the thought of his predecessors.

IV. Han Fei Zi

Han Fei (280?-233? bc), also known as Han Fei-tzu (tzu is a Chinese suffix meaning “master”), early Chinese philosopher, considered the greatest exponent of the political theory of Legalism (see Chinese Philosophy: Legalism). Born into the aristocracy of the small kingdom of Han in central China, Han Fei grew up towards the end of the Period of the Warring States (403-221 bc), when all the states of Zhou-dynasty China (1045?-256 bc) were engaged in a struggle for political power. He studied under the Confucian philosopher Xunzi (see Confucianism), but turned away from established traditions to teach what he felt were more practical matters. He wrote down his views in essays that were later compiled in the book Han Feizi (Han Fei-tzu).

In his book, Han Fei diverged from the dominant philosophy of Confucianism by opposing traditional models of government and excessive book learning. He advocated a state, ruled by an enlightened ruler with absolute authority, in which law replaces morality. According to Han Fei, individual standards of morality (see Ethics) should be replaced by what the ruler wants (considered right) and what the ruler does not want (considered wrong).

Later, the leader of Han sent Han Fei to negotiate with the western state of Qin (Ch’in), where he was politely received by its ruler, the future First Emperor Shi Huangdi, who had read his book. However, Qin's chief minister Li Si, an occasional pupil of Han Fei, persuaded Shi Huangdi to have Han Fei executed by forcing him to drink poison. Following the principles of Han Fei's philosophy, Qin went on to dominate all other Chinese states and unify China, but the Qin dynasty's swift collapse in 209 bc effectively discredited the views of Legalism.

V. Sun Tzu - Art of War

The Art of War is an ancient Chinese military treatise that is attributed to Sun Tzu (also referred to as "Sunzi" and "Sun Wu"), a high ranking military general and strategist during the late Spring and Autumn period (some scholars believe that the Art of War was not completed until the subsequent Warring States period^[1]). Composed of 13 chapters, each of which is devoted to one aspect of warfare, it is said to be the definitive work on military strategies and tactics of its time, and is still read for its military insights.

The Art of War is one of the oldest and most successful books on military strategy in the world. It has been the most famous and influential of China's Seven Military Classics: "for the last two thousand years it remained the most important military treatise in Asia, where even the common people knew it by name."^[2] It has had an influence on Eastern military thinking, business tactics, and beyond.

Sun Tzu emphasized the importance of positioning in military strategy, and that the decision to position an army must be based on both objective conditions in the physical environment and the subjective beliefs of other, competitive actors in that environment. He thought that strategy was not planning in the sense of working through an established list, but rather that it requires quick and appropriate responses to changing conditions. Planning works in a controlled environment, but in a changing environment, competing plans collide, creating unexpected situations.

The book was first translated into the French language in 1772 by French Jesuit Jean Joseph Marie Amiot, and into English by British officer Everard Ferguson Calthrop in 1905. Leaders as diverse as Mao Zedong, General Vo Nguyen Giap, Baron Antoine-Henri Jomini, GeneralDouglas MacArthur, Napoleon, and leaders of Imperial Japan have drawn inspiration from the work. The Art of War has also been applied tobusiness and managerial strategies.

Imperial Japan have drawn inspiration from the work. The Art of War has also been applied tobusiness and managerial strategies. 

 The 13 Chapters

1. Laying Plans/The Calculations explores the five fundamental factors (the Way, seasons, terrain, leadership, and management) and seven elements that determine the outcomes of military engagements. By thinking, assessing and comparing these points, a commander can calculate his chances of victory. Habitual deviation from these calculations will ensure failure via improper action. The text stresses that war is a very grave matter for the state, and must not be commenced without due consideration.
2. Waging War/The Challenge explains how to understand the economy of warfare, and how success requires winning decisive engagements quickly. This section advises that successful military campaigns require limiting the cost of competition and conflict.
3. Attack by Stratagem/The Plan of Attack defines the source of strength as unity, not size, and discusses the five factors that are needed to succeed in any war. In order of importance, these critical factors are: Attack, Strategy, Alliances, Army, and Cities.
4. Tactical Dispositions/Positioning explains the importance of defending existing positions until a commander is capable of advancing from those positions in safety. It teaches commanders the importance of recognizing strategic opportunities, and teaches not to create opportunities for the enemy.
5. Energy/Directing explains the use of creativity and timing in building an army's momentum.
6. Weak Points & Strong/Illusion and Reality explains how an army's opportunities come from the openings in the environment caused by the relative weakness of the enemy in a given area.
7. Maneuvering/Engaging The Force explains the dangers of direct conflict and how to win those confrontations when they are forced upon the commander.
8. Variation in Tactics/The Nine Variations focuses on the need for flexibility in an army's responses. It explains how to respond to shifting circumstances successfully.
9. The Army on the March/Moving The Force describes the different situations in which an army finds itself as it moves through new enemy territories, and how to respond to these situations. Much of this section focuses on evaluating the intentions of others.
10. Terrain/Situational Positioning looks at the three general areas of resistance (distance, dangers, and barriers) and the six types of ground positions that arise from them. Each of these six field positions offer certain advantages and disadvantages.
11. The Nine Situations/Nine Terrains describes the nine common situations (or stages) in a campaign, from scattering to deadly, and the specific focus that a commander will need in order to successfully navigate them.
12. The Attack by Fire/Fiery Attack explains the general use of weapons and the specific use of the environment as a weapon. This section examines the five targets for attack, the five types of environmental attack, and the appropriate responses to such attacks.
13. The Use of Spies/The Use of Intelligence focuses on the importance of developing good information sources, and specifies the five types of intelligence sources and how to best manage each of them.